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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string.
  50            Default: 2.
  51        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  54            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  55            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  56            False: Disables function name normalization.
  57        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  58            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  59        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  60            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  61            Default: 3
  62        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  63            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  64            Default: False
  65        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  66            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  67            line length.
  68            Default: 80
  69        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  70            Default: True
  71    """
  72
  73    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  74        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  75        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  78        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  79        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  81        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  83        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  84        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  87        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  88            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  89        ),
  90        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  94        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  95        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  96        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  97        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
  98        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
  99        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 100        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 101        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 103        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 104            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 105        ),
 106        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 107            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 108        ),
 109        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 110        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 112        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 113        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 114        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 115        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 116        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 117        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 118        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 119        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 124        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 126        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 128        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 129        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 130        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 132        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 133        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 134        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 135        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 136        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 138        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 139        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 140        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 141        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 142        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 143        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 144        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 145        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 146        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 147    }
 148
 149    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 150    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 151    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 152
 153    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 154    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 155    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 156
 157    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 158    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 159
 160    # Always do union distinct or union all
 161    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 162
 163    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 164    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 165
 166    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 167    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 168
 169    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 170    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 171
 172    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 173    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 174
 175    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 176    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 177
 178    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 179    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 180
 181    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 182    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 183
 184    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 185    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 186
 187    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 188    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 189
 190    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 191    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 192
 193    # Whether join hints should be generated
 194    JOIN_HINTS = True
 195
 196    # Whether table hints should be generated
 197    TABLE_HINTS = True
 198
 199    # Whether query hints should be generated
 200    QUERY_HINTS = True
 201
 202    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 203    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 204
 205    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 206    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 207
 208    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 209    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 210
 211    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 212    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 213
 214    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 215    RETURNING_END = True
 216
 217    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 218    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 219
 220    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 221    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 222
 223    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 224    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 225
 226    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 227    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 228
 229    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 230    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 231
 232    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 233    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 234    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 235    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 236
 237    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 238    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 239
 240    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 241    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 242
 243    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 244    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 245
 246    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 247    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 248
 249    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 250    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 251
 252    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 253    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 254
 255    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 256    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 257
 258    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 259    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 260
 261    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 262    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 263
 264    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 265    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 266
 267    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 268    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 269
 270    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 271    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 272
 273    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 274    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 275
 276    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 277    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 278
 279    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 280    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 281
 282    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 283    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 284
 285    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 286    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 287
 288    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 289    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 290
 291    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 292    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 293
 294    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 295    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 296
 297    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 298    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 299
 300    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 301    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 302
 303    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 304    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 305
 306    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 307    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 308
 309    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 310    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 311
 312    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 313    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 314    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 315
 316    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 317    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 318
 319    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 320    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 321
 322    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 323    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 324
 325    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 326    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 327
 328    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 329    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 330
 331    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 332    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 333
 334    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 335        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 336        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 337        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 338        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 339        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 340        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 341        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 342        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 343        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 344    }
 345
 346    STAR_MAPPING = {
 347        "except": "EXCEPT",
 348        "replace": "REPLACE",
 349    }
 350
 351    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 352        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 353        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 354        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 355        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 356        "DAYS": "DAY",
 357        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 358        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 359        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 360        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 361    }
 362
 363    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 364        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 365        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 366        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 367        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 368        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 369            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 370            if e.args.get("windows")
 371            else ""
 372        ),
 373    }
 374
 375    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 376
 377    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 378
 379    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 380    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 381
 382    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 383        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 384        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 385        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 386        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 387        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 388        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 389        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 390        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 391        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 392        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 393        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 394        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 395        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 396        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 397        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 398        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 399        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 400        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 401        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 402        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 403        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 404        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 405        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 406        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 407        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 408        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 409        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 410        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 411        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 412        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 413        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 414        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 415        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 416        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 417        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 418        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 419        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 420        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 421        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 422        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 423        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 424        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 425        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 427        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 428        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 429        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 430        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 431        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 441        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 443        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 444        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 447        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 449        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 451        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 454        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 455        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 456        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 457        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458    }
 459
 460    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 461    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 462
 463    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 464    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 465        exp.Create,
 466        exp.Delete,
 467        exp.Drop,
 468        exp.From,
 469        exp.Insert,
 470        exp.Join,
 471        exp.Select,
 472        exp.Union,
 473        exp.Update,
 474        exp.Where,
 475        exp.With,
 476    )
 477
 478    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 479    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 480        exp.Binary,
 481        exp.Union,
 482    )
 483
 484    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 485    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 486        exp.Column,
 487        exp.Literal,
 488        exp.Neg,
 489        exp.Paren,
 490    )
 491
 492    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 493        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 494        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 495        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 496        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 497    }
 498
 499    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 500    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 501
 502    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 503
 504    __slots__ = (
 505        "pretty",
 506        "identify",
 507        "normalize",
 508        "pad",
 509        "_indent",
 510        "normalize_functions",
 511        "unsupported_level",
 512        "max_unsupported",
 513        "leading_comma",
 514        "max_text_width",
 515        "comments",
 516        "dialect",
 517        "unsupported_messages",
 518        "_escaped_quote_end",
 519        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 520    )
 521
 522    def __init__(
 523        self,
 524        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 525        identify: str | bool = False,
 526        normalize: bool = False,
 527        pad: int = 2,
 528        indent: int = 2,
 529        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 530        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 531        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 532        leading_comma: bool = False,
 533        max_text_width: int = 80,
 534        comments: bool = True,
 535        dialect: DialectType = None,
 536    ):
 537        import sqlglot
 538        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 539
 540        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 541        self.identify = identify
 542        self.normalize = normalize
 543        self.pad = pad
 544        self._indent = indent
 545        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 546        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 547        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 548        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 549        self.comments = comments
 550        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 551
 552        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 553        self.normalize_functions = (
 554            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 555        )
 556
 557        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 558        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 559            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 560        )
 561        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 562            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 563        )
 564
 565    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 566        """
 567        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 568
 569        Args:
 570            expression: The syntax tree.
 571            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 572                it is safer to copy.
 573
 574        Returns:
 575            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 576        """
 577        if copy:
 578            expression = expression.copy()
 579
 580        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 581
 582        self.unsupported_messages = []
 583        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 584
 585        if self.pretty:
 586            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 587
 588        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 589            return sql
 590
 591        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 592            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 593                logger.warning(msg)
 594        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 595            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 596
 597        return sql
 598
 599    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 600        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 601        if (
 602            not expression.parent
 603            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 604            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 605        ):
 606            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 607
 608            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 609
 610        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 611            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 612
 613            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 614
 615        return expression
 616
 617    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 618        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 619            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 620        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 621
 622    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 623        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 624
 625    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 626        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 627
 628    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 629        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 630        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 631        return comment
 632
 633    def maybe_comment(
 634        self,
 635        sql: str,
 636        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 637        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 638    ) -> str:
 639        comments = (
 640            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 641            if self.comments
 642            else None
 643        )
 644
 645        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 646            return sql
 647
 648        comments_sql = " ".join(
 649            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 650        )
 651
 652        if not comments_sql:
 653            return sql
 654
 655        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 656            return (
 657                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 658                if sql[0].isspace()
 659                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 660            )
 661
 662        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 663
 664    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 665        this_sql = self.indent(
 666            (
 667                self.sql(expression)
 668                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 669                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 670            ),
 671            level=1,
 672            pad=0,
 673        )
 674        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 675
 676    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 677        original = self.identify
 678        self.identify = False
 679        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 680        self.identify = original
 681        return result
 682
 683    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 684        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 685            return name.upper()
 686        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 687            return name.lower()
 688        return name
 689
 690    def indent(
 691        self,
 692        sql: str,
 693        level: int = 0,
 694        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 695        skip_first: bool = False,
 696        skip_last: bool = False,
 697    ) -> str:
 698        if not self.pretty:
 699            return sql
 700
 701        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 702        lines = sql.split("\n")
 703
 704        return "\n".join(
 705            (
 706                line
 707                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 708                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 709            )
 710            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 711        )
 712
 713    def sql(
 714        self,
 715        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 716        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 717        comment: bool = True,
 718    ) -> str:
 719        if not expression:
 720            return ""
 721
 722        if isinstance(expression, str):
 723            return expression
 724
 725        if key:
 726            value = expression.args.get(key)
 727            if value:
 728                return self.sql(value)
 729            return ""
 730
 731        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 732
 733        if callable(transform):
 734            sql = transform(self, expression)
 735        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 736            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 737
 738            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 739                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 740            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 741                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 742            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 743                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 744            else:
 745                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 746        else:
 747            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 748
 749        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 750
 751    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 752        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 753        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 754        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 755
 756    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 757        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 758        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 759        options = expression.args.get("options")
 760        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 761        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 762        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 763        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 764        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 765
 766    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 767        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 768            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 769        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 770        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 771
 772    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 773        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 774
 775        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 776            join_mark = ""
 777            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 778
 779        column = ".".join(
 780            self.sql(part)
 781            for part in (
 782                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 783                expression.args.get("db"),
 784                expression.args.get("table"),
 785                expression.args.get("this"),
 786            )
 787            if part
 788        )
 789
 790        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 791
 792    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 793        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 794        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 795        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 796        return f"{position}{this}"
 797
 798    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 799        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 800        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 801        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 802        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 803        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 804        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 805        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 806        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 807
 808        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 809            kind = ""
 810
 811        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 812
 813    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 814        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 815        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 816        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 817
 818    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 820        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 821            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 822        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 823            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 824        else:
 825            persisted = ""
 826        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 827
 828    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 829        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 830
 831    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 832        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 833            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 834        else:
 835            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 836
 837        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 838
 839    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 840        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 841    ) -> str:
 842        this = ""
 843        if expression.this is not None:
 844            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 845            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 846
 847        start = expression.args.get("start")
 848        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 849        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 850        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 851        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 852        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 853        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 854        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 855        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 856        cycle_sql = ""
 857
 858        if cycle is not None:
 859            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 860            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 861
 862        sequence_opts = ""
 863        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 864            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 865            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 866
 867        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 868        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 869
 870        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 871
 872    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 873        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 874    ) -> str:
 875        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 876        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 877        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 878
 879    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 880        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 881    ) -> str:
 882        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 883
 884    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 885        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 886
 887    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 888        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 889
 890    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 891        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 892        if desc is not None:
 893            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 894        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 895
 896    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 897        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 898        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 899        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 900        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 901        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 902        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 903        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 904
 905    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 906        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 907
 908    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 909        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 910        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 911        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 912
 913        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 914
 915        properties_sql = ""
 916        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 917            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 918        ):
 919            properties_sql = self.sql(
 920                exp.Properties(
 921                    expressions=[
 922                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 923                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 924                    ]
 925                )
 926            )
 927
 928        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 929        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 930
 931        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 932        if expression_sql:
 933            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 934
 935            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 936                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 937                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 938                        exp.Properties(
 939                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 940                        ),
 941                        wrapped=False,
 942                    )
 943                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 944                else:
 945                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 946
 947        postindex_props_sql = ""
 948        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 949            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 950                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 951                wrapped=False,
 952                prefix=" ",
 953            )
 954
 955        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 956        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 957        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 958
 959        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 960        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 961
 962        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 963        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 964            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 965                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 966                sep=" ",
 967                prefix=" ",
 968                wrapped=False,
 969            )
 970
 971        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 972
 973        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 974        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 975            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 976                exp.Properties(
 977                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 978                ),
 979                sep=" ",
 980                prefix=" ",
 981                wrapped=False,
 982            )
 983
 984        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 985        no_schema_binding = (
 986            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 987        )
 988
 989        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 990        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 991
 992        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 993        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 994
 995    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
 996        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
 997        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 998        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
 999        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1000        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1001        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1002        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1003        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1004        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1005        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1006
1007        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1008        if cache is None:
1009            cache_str = ""
1010        elif cache is True:
1011            cache_str = " CACHE"
1012        else:
1013            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1014
1015        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1016        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1017
1018        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1019
1020    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1022        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1023        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1024        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1025
1026    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1027        extended = " EXTENDED" if expression.args.get("extended") else ""
1028        return f"DESCRIBE{extended} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1029
1030    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1031        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1032        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1033
1034    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1035        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1036        if with_:
1037            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1038        return sql
1039
1040    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1041        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1042        recursive = (
1043            "RECURSIVE "
1044            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1045            else ""
1046        )
1047
1048        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1049
1050    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1051        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1052
1053        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1054        if materialized is False:
1055            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1056        elif materialized:
1057            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1058
1059        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1060
1061    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1062        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1063        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1064        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1065
1066        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1067            columns = ""
1068            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1069
1070        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1071            alias = "_t"
1072
1073        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1074
1075    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1076        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1077        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1078            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1079        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1080
1081    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1083        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1084            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1085        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1086
1087    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1088        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1089        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1090            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1091        return this
1092
1093    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1094        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1095        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1096
1097        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1098            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1099            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1100
1101        if escape:
1102            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1103        else:
1104            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1105
1106        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1107        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1108
1109    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1110        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
1111        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1112
1113    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1114        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1115        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1116        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1117        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1118
1119    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1120        type_value = expression.this
1121
1122        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1123            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1124        else:
1125            type_sql = (
1126                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1127                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1128                else type_value
1129            )
1130
1131        nested = ""
1132        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1133        values = ""
1134
1135        if interior:
1136            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1137                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1138                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1139                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1140                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1141                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1142            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1143                nested = f" {interior}"
1144            else:
1145                nested = f"({interior})"
1146
1147        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1148        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1149            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1150            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1151        ):
1152            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1153
1154        return type_sql
1155
1156    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1157        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1158        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1159        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1160        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1161
1162    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1163        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1164        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1165        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1166        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1167        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1168        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1169        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1170        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1171        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1172        if self.RETURNING_END:
1173            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1174        else:
1175            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1176        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1177
1178    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1180        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1181        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1182        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1183        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1184        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1185        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1186        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1187        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1188        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1189        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1190
1191    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1192        return self.set_operations(expression)
1193
1194    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1195        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1196
1197    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1198        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1199        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1200        count = expression.args.get("count")
1201        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1202        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1203            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1204        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1205        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1206
1207    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1208        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1209            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1210            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1211            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1212
1213        agg = expression.this
1214        agg_arg = agg.this
1215        cond = expression.expression.this
1216        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1217        return self.sql(agg)
1218
1219    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1220        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1221            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1222            return ""
1223
1224        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1225
1226    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1227        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1228        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1229        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1230        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1231        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1232        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1233        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1234        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1235        if include:
1236            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1237        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1238        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1239        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1240        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1241
1242        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1243
1244    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1245        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1246        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1247        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1248        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1249        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1250        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1251        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1252
1253        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1254
1255        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1256        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1257
1258    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1259        text = expression.name
1260        lower = text.lower()
1261        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1262        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1263        if (
1264            expression.quoted
1265            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1266            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1267            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1268        ):
1269            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1270        return text
1271
1272    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1273        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1274        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1275        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1276        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1277        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1278
1279    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1280        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1281        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1282
1283    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1284        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1285
1286    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1287        root_properties = []
1288        with_properties = []
1289
1290        for p in expression.expressions:
1291            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1292            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1293                with_properties.append(p)
1294            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1295                root_properties.append(p)
1296
1297        return self.root_properties(
1298            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1299        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1300
1301    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1302        if properties.expressions:
1303            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1304        return ""
1305
1306    def properties(
1307        self,
1308        properties: exp.Properties,
1309        prefix: str = "",
1310        sep: str = ", ",
1311        suffix: str = "",
1312        wrapped: bool = True,
1313    ) -> str:
1314        if properties.expressions:
1315            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1316            if expressions:
1317                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1318                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1319        return ""
1320
1321    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1322        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1323
1324    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1325        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1326        for p in properties.expressions:
1327            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1328            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1329                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1330            else:
1331                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1332
1333        return properties_locs
1334
1335    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1336        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1337            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1338        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1339
1340    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1341        property_cls = expression.__class__
1342        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1343            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1344
1345        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1346        if not property_name:
1347            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1348
1349        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1350
1351    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1352        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1353            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1354            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1355
1356            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1357            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1358                like = f"({like})"
1359
1360            return like
1361
1362        if expression.expressions:
1363            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1364
1365        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1366        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1367
1368    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1369        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1370        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1371        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1372
1373    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1374        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1375        local = expression.args.get("local")
1376        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1377        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1378        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1379        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1380        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1381
1382    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1383        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1384        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1385        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1386
1387    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1388        if expression.args.get("default"):
1389            property = "DEFAULT"
1390        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1391            property = "ON"
1392        else:
1393            property = "OFF"
1394        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1395
1396    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1397        if expression.args.get("no"):
1398            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1399        if expression.args.get("default"):
1400            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1401
1402        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1403        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1404
1405    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1406        default = expression.args.get("default")
1407        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1408        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1409        if default or minimum or maximum:
1410            if default:
1411                prop = "DEFAULT"
1412            elif minimum:
1413                prop = "MINIMUM"
1414            else:
1415                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1416            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1417        units = expression.args.get("units")
1418        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1419        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1420
1421    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1422        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1423        always = expression.args.get("always")
1424        default = expression.args.get("default")
1425        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1426        never = expression.args.get("never")
1427
1428        if autotemp is not None:
1429            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1430        elif always:
1431            prop = "ALWAYS"
1432        elif default:
1433            prop = "DEFAULT"
1434        elif manual:
1435            prop = "MANUAL"
1436        elif never:
1437            prop = "NEVER"
1438        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1439
1440    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1441        no = expression.args.get("no")
1442        no = " NO" if no else ""
1443        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1444        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1445
1446        for_ = ""
1447        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1448            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1449        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1450            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1451        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1452            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1453        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1454
1455    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1456        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1457            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1458        if expression.this:
1459            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1460            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1461            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1462
1463        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1464        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1465        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1466
1467    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1468        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1469
1470        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1471        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1472            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1473        else:
1474            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1475
1476        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1477
1478    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1479        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1480        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1481        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1482        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1483        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1484        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1485        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1486
1487    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1488        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1489        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1490        statistics_sql = ""
1491        if statistics is not None:
1492            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1493        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1494
1495    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1496        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1497
1498        if expression.this:
1499            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1500            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1501
1502            if expression.expression:
1503                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1504                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1505
1506            sql = f"{sql})"
1507
1508        return f"{sql})"
1509
1510    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1511        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1512        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1513
1514        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1515            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1516        else:
1517            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1518
1519        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1520        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1521        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1522        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1523        if is_function:
1524            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1525        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1526
1527        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1528        partition_sql = (
1529            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1530        )
1531        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1532        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1533        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1534        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1535        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1536        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1537        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1538
1539        if self.RETURNING_END:
1540            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1541        else:
1542            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1543
1544        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1545        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1546
1547    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1548        return self.set_operations(expression)
1549
1550    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1551        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1552
1553    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1554        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1555
1556    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1557        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1558        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1559        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1560        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1561        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1562
1563    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1564        return expression.name
1565
1566    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1567        return expression.name
1568
1569    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1570        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1571
1572        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1573        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1574
1575        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1576        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1577        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1578
1579        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1580        if expressions:
1581            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1582            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1583
1584        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1585
1586    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1587        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1588
1589    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1590        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1591        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1592        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1593        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1594        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1595        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1596        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1597        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1598        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1599        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1600        null = expression.args.get("null")
1601        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1602        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1603
1604    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1605        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1606
1607    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1608        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1609        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1610        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1611        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1612
1613    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1614        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1615        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1616        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1617        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1618
1619    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1620        return ".".join(
1621            self.sql(part)
1622            for part in (
1623                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1624                expression.args.get("db"),
1625                expression.args.get("this"),
1626            )
1627            if part is not None
1628        )
1629
1630    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1631        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1632        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1633        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1634        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1635        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1636        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1637        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1638        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1639        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1640        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1641        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1642        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1643
1644        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1645        if file_format:
1646            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1647            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1648            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1649
1650        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1651        if ordinality:
1652            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1653            alias = ""
1654
1655        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1656        if when:
1657            table = f"{table} {when}"
1658
1659        return f"{only}{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1660
1661    def tablesample_sql(
1662        self,
1663        expression: exp.TableSample,
1664        sep: str = " AS ",
1665        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1666    ) -> str:
1667        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1668            table = expression.this.copy()
1669            table.set("alias", None)
1670            this = self.sql(table)
1671            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1672        else:
1673            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1674            alias = ""
1675
1676        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1677        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1678        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1679        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1680        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1681        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1682        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1683        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1684        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1685
1686        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1687        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1688            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1689
1690        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1691        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1692            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1693
1694        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1695        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1696            expr = f"({expr})"
1697
1698        return (
1699            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1700        )
1701
1702    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1703        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1704
1705        if expression.this:
1706            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1707            if not expressions:
1708                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1709
1710            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1711            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1712            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1713            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1714            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1715
1716        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1717        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1718        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1719        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1720        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1721        if include_nulls is not None:
1722            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1723        else:
1724            nulls = ""
1725        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1726
1727    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1728        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1729        kind = expression.text("kind")
1730        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1731        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1732
1733    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1734        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1735
1736    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1738        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1739        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1740        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1741        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1742        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1743        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1744        if self.RETURNING_END:
1745            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1746        else:
1747            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1748        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1749        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1750
1751    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1752        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1753        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1754            args = self.expressions(expression)
1755            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1756            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1757            values = (
1758                f"({values})"
1759                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1760                else values
1761            )
1762            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1763
1764        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1765        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1766        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1767
1768        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1769
1770        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1771            row = tup.expressions
1772
1773            if i == 0 and column_names:
1774                row = [
1775                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1776                ]
1777
1778            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1779
1780        if self.pretty:
1781            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1782            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1783            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1784            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1785            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1786
1787        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1788        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1789        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1790
1791    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1792        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1793
1794    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1795        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1796        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1797        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1798
1799    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1800        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1801
1802    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1803        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1804
1805        if expression.args.get("all"):
1806            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1807
1808        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1809        grouping_sets = (
1810            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1811        )
1812
1813        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1814        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1815            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1816        else:
1817            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1818            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1819
1820        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1821        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1822            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1823        else:
1824            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1825            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1826
1827        groupings = csv(
1828            grouping_sets,
1829            cube_sql,
1830            rollup_sql,
1831            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1832            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1833        )
1834
1835        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1836            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1837
1838        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1839
1840    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1841        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1842        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1843
1844    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1845        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1846        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1847        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1848        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1849        return start + connect
1850
1851    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1852        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1853
1854    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1855        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1856            side = None
1857        else:
1858            side = expression.side
1859
1860        op_sql = " ".join(
1861            op
1862            for op in (
1863                expression.method,
1864                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1865                side,
1866                expression.kind,
1867                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1868            )
1869            if op
1870        )
1871        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1872        using = expression.args.get("using")
1873
1874        if not on_sql and using:
1875            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1876
1877        this = expression.this
1878        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1879
1880        if on_sql:
1881            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1882            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1883            if using:
1884                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1885            else:
1886                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1887        elif not op_sql:
1888            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1889                return f" {this_sql}"
1890
1891            return f", {this_sql}"
1892
1893        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1894        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1895
1896    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1897        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1898        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1899        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1900
1901    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1902        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1903
1904        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1905        if cross_apply is True:
1906            op = "INNER JOIN "
1907        elif cross_apply is False:
1908            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1909        else:
1910            op = ""
1911
1912        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1913
1914    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1916
1917        if expression.args.get("view"):
1918            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1919            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1920            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1921            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1922            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1923            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1924
1925        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1926        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1927        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1928
1929    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1930        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1931
1932        args = [
1933            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1934            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1935            if e
1936        ]
1937
1938        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1939        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1940        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1941        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1942
1943        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1944
1945    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1947        value = expression.expression
1948        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1949        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1950        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1951        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1952
1953    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1954        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1955        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1956        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1957        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1958        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1959        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1960        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1961        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1962
1963    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1964        expressions = (
1965            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1966        )
1967        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1968        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1969
1970    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1971        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1972
1973    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1974        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1975            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1976            return ""
1977
1978        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1979        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1980        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1981        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1982
1983        if wait is not None:
1984            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1985                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1986            else:
1987                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1988
1989        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1990
1991    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1992        text = expression.this or ""
1993        if expression.is_string:
1994            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1995        return text
1996
1997    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1998        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1999        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
2000            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
2001        elif self.pretty:
2002            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
2003        return text
2004
2005    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2006        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2007        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2008        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2009        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2010        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2011        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2012        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2013        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2014        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2015        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2016        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2017
2018    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2019        return "NULL"
2020
2021    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2022        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2023
2024    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2026        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2027        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2028        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2029        interpolated_values = [
2030            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2031            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2032        ]
2033        interpolate = (
2034            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2035        )
2036        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2037
2038    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2039        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2040        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2041        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2042        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2043        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2044        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2045        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2046
2047    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2048        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2049
2050    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2051        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2052
2053    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2054        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2055
2056    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2057        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2058        asc = not desc
2059
2060        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2061        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2062        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2063        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2064        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2065
2066        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2067
2068        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2069        nulls_sort_change = ""
2070        if nulls_first and (
2071            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2072        ):
2073            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2074        elif (
2075            nulls_last
2076            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2077            and not nulls_are_last
2078        ):
2079            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2080
2081        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2082        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2083            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2084            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2085                self.unsupported(
2086                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2087                )
2088                nulls_sort_change = ""
2089            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2090                if expression.this.is_int:
2091                    self.unsupported(
2092                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2093                    )
2094                else:
2095                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2096                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2097                nulls_sort_change = ""
2098
2099        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2100        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2101
2102        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2103
2104    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2105        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2106        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2107        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2108        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2109        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2110        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2111        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2112        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2113        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2114        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2115        definition_sqls = [
2116            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2117            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2118        ]
2119        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2120        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2121        body = "".join(
2122            (
2123                partition,
2124                order,
2125                measures,
2126                rows,
2127                after,
2128                pattern,
2129                define,
2130            )
2131        )
2132        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2133        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2134        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2135
2136    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2137        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2138
2139        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2140            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2141        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2142            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2143
2144        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2145        if options:
2146            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2147
2148        return csv(
2149            *sqls,
2150            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2151            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2152            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2153            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2154            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2155            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2156            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2157            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2158            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2159            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2160            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2161            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2162            options,
2163            sep="",
2164        )
2165
2166    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2167        return ""
2168
2169    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2170        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2171    ) -> t.List[str]:
2172        return [
2173            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2174            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2175        ]
2176
2177    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2178        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2179        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2180        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2181
2182    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2183        into = expression.args.get("into")
2184        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2185            into.pop()
2186
2187        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2188        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2189        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2190        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2191
2192        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2193        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2194            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2195            limit.pop()
2196        else:
2197            top = ""
2198
2199        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2200
2201        if kind:
2202            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2203                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2204            else:
2205                if kind == "STRUCT":
2206                    expressions = self.expressions(
2207                        sqls=[
2208                            self.sql(
2209                                exp.Struct(
2210                                    expressions=[
2211                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2212                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2213                                        else e
2214                                        for e in expression.expressions
2215                                    ]
2216                                )
2217                            )
2218                        ]
2219                    )
2220                kind = ""
2221
2222        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2223        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2224        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2225        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2226        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2227            expression,
2228            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2229            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2230            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2231        )
2232
2233        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2234
2235        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2236            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2237                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2238            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2239                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2240            else:
2241                table_kind = ""
2242            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2243
2244        return sql
2245
2246    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2247        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2248        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2249        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2250
2251    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2252        if expression.expressions:
2253            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2254        return ""
2255
2256    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2257        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2258        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2259        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2260        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2261        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2262
2263    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2264        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2265        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2266
2267    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2268        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2269        kind = expression.text("kind")
2270        if kind:
2271            kind = f"{kind}."
2272        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2273
2274    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2275        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2276
2277    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2278        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2279        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2280
2281        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2282        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2283
2284        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2285        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2286
2287    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2288        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2289        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2290
2291    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2292        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2293        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2294
2295        while stack:
2296            node = stack.pop()
2297
2298            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2299                stack.append(node.expression)
2300                stack.append(
2301                    self.maybe_comment(
2302                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2303                        expression=node.this,
2304                        comments=node.comments,
2305                    )
2306                )
2307                stack.append(node.this)
2308            else:
2309                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2310
2311        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2312        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2313        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2314
2315    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2316        return self.set_operations(expression)
2317
2318    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2319        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2320        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2321        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2322        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2323
2324    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2325        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2326
2327        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2328        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2329
2330        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2331            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2332                alias.append("columns", offset)
2333
2334        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2335            columns = alias.columns
2336            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2337        else:
2338            alias = self.sql(alias)
2339
2340        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2341        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2342            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2343        else:
2344            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2345                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2346            elif offset:
2347                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2348            else:
2349                suffix = alias
2350
2351        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2352
2353    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2354        return ""
2355
2356    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2357        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2358        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2359
2360    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2361        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2362        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2363        order = expression.args.get("order")
2364        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2365        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2366        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2367        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2368
2369        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2370
2371        first = expression.args.get("first")
2372        if first is None:
2373            first = ""
2374        else:
2375            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2376
2377        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2378            return f"{this} {alias}"
2379
2380        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2381        return f"{this} ({args})"
2382
2383    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2384        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2385        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2386
2387    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2388        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2389        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2390        end = (
2391            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2392            or "CURRENT ROW"
2393        )
2394        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2395
2396    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2397        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2398        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2399        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2400
2401    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2402        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2403        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2404        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2405        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2406
2407    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2408        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2409            expression.this,
2410            expression.expressions,
2411            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2412        )
2413        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2414        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2415
2416    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2417        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2418
2419    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2420        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2421        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2422            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2423                this = self.wrap(this)
2424            return f"ANY{this}"
2425        return f"ANY {this}"
2426
2427    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2428        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2429
2430    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2431        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2432        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2433
2434        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2435            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2436            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2437
2438        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2439
2440        if default:
2441            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2442
2443        statements.append("END")
2444
2445        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2446            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2447
2448        return " ".join(statements)
2449
2450    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2451        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2452        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2453        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2454
2455    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2456        order = expression.args.get("order")
2457        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2458        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2459
2460    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2461        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2462        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2463        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2464
2465    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2466        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2467
2468        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2469            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2470        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2471            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2472        else:
2473            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2474
2475    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2476        args = expression.expressions
2477        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2478            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2479
2480        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2481            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2482
2483        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2484            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2485
2486        return args
2487
2488    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2489        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2490
2491        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2492        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2493            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2494
2495        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2496
2497    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2498        return self.func(
2499            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2500        )
2501
2502    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2503        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2504        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2505
2506    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2507        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2508        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2509        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2510        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2511        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2512        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2513        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2514        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2515
2516    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2517        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2518        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2519        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2520        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2521
2522    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2523        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2524
2525    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2526        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2527        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2528        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2529
2530    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2531        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2532
2533    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2534        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2535        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2536
2537    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2538        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2539            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2540            if not callable(transform):
2541                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2542                return ""
2543
2544            return transform(self, expression)
2545
2546        if isinstance(expression, int):
2547            return str(expression)
2548
2549        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2550            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2551            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2552        else:
2553            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2554            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2555
2556        return escaped
2557
2558    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2559        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2560
2561    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2562        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2563        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2564
2565        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2566        if unique_keys is not None:
2567            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2568        else:
2569            unique_keys = ""
2570
2571        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2572        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2573        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2574        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2575
2576        return self.func(
2577            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2578            *expression.expressions,
2579            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2580        )
2581
2582    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2583        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2584
2585    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2586        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2587        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2588        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2589        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2590        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2591        return self.func(
2592            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2593        )
2594
2595    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2596        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2597        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2598        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2599        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2600        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2601        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2602        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2603        return self.func(
2604            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2605            this,
2606            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2607        )
2608
2609    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2610        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2611        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2612        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2613
2614        if nested_schema:
2615            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2616
2617        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2618        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2619        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2620        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2621
2622    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2623        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2624
2625    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2626        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2627        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2628        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2629        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2630        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2631        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2632        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2633        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2634        return self.func(
2635            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2636        )
2637
2638    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2639        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2640        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2641        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2642        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2643        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2644        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2645
2646    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2647        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2648        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2649        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2650        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2651        with_ = (
2652            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2653            if expressions
2654            else ""
2655        )
2656        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2657
2658    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2659        query = expression.args.get("query")
2660        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2661        field = expression.args.get("field")
2662        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2663
2664        if query:
2665            in_sql = self.wrap(self.sql(query))
2666        elif unnest:
2667            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2668        elif field:
2669            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2670        else:
2671            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2672
2673        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2674
2675    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2676        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2677
2678    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2679        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2680        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2681            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2682        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2683
2684        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2685            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2686            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2687
2688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2689        if this:
2690            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2691            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2692
2693        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2694
2695    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2696        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2697
2698    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2700        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2701        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2702        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2703        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2704        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2705
2706    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2707        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2708
2709    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2710        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2711        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2712
2713    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2714        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2715        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2716        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2717        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2718
2719    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2720        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2721
2722    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2723        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2724        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2725        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2726
2727    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2728        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2729        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2730
2731        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2732            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2733        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2734            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2735
2736        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2737
2738    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2739        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2740
2741    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2742        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2743        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2744        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2745
2746    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2747        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2748        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2749        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2750
2751    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2752        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2753        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2754        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2755
2756    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2757        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2758
2759    def and_sql(
2760        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2761    ) -> str:
2762        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2763
2764    def or_sql(
2765        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2766    ) -> str:
2767        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2768
2769    def xor_sql(
2770        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2771    ) -> str:
2772        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2773
2774    def connector_sql(
2775        self,
2776        expression: exp.Connector,
2777        op: str,
2778        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2779    ) -> str:
2780        if stack is not None:
2781            if expression.expressions:
2782                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2783            else:
2784                stack.append(expression.right)
2785                if expression.comments:
2786                    for comment in expression.comments:
2787                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2788                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2789            return op
2790
2791        stack = [expression]
2792        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2793        ops = set()
2794
2795        while stack:
2796            node = stack.pop()
2797            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2798                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2799            else:
2800                sql = self.sql(node)
2801                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2802                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2803                else:
2804                    sqls.append(sql)
2805
2806        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2807        return sep.join(sqls)
2808
2809    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2810        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2811
2812    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2813        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2814
2815    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2816        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2817
2818    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2819        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2820
2821    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2822        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2823
2824    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2825        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2826
2827    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2828        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2829        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2830        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2831        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2832        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2833        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2834        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2835
2836    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2837        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2838        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2839
2840    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2841        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2842
2843    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2844        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2845            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2846        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2847
2848    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2849        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2850
2851    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2852        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2853        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2854        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2855        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2856        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2857
2858    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2860        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2861        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2862        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2863        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2864        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2865        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2866        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2867        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2868
2869    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2870        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2871        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2872        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2873        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2874
2875        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2876            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2877
2878        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2879
2880    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2881        return "BEGIN"
2882
2883    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2884        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2885        if chain is not None:
2886            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2887
2888        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2889
2890    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2891        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2892        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2893        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2894
2895    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2896        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2897
2898        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2899        if dtype:
2900            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2901            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2902            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2903            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2904            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2905
2906        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2907        if default:
2908            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2909
2910        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2911        if comment:
2912            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2913
2914        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2915            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2916
2917        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2918
2919    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2920        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2921            # Remove db from tables
2922            expression = expression.transform(
2923                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2924            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2925        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2926        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2927
2928    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2929        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2930        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2931        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2932        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2933
2934    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2935        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2936
2937        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2938            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2939        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2940            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2941        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2942            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2943        else:
2944            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2945
2946        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2947        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2948        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2949        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
2950        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
2951
2952    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2953        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2954            return self.expressions(
2955                expression,
2956                key="actions",
2957                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2958            )
2959        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2960
2961    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2962        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2963        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2964        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2965
2966    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2967        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
2968
2969    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2970        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2971
2972        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
2973            case = exp.case()
2974            for arg in expression.expressions:
2975                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
2976            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
2977
2978        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2979
2980        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2981        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2982        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2983
2984    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2985        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
2986
2987    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2988        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
2989
2990    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
2991        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2992        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2993        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
2994        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
2995
2996    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
2997        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
2998            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
2999            mods = sorted(
3000                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3001                key=lambda x: 0
3002                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3003                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3004            )
3005
3006            if mods:
3007                mod = mods[0]
3008                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3009                this.meta["inline"] = True
3010                mod.this.replace(this)
3011                return self.sql(expression.this)
3012
3013            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3014
3015            if agg_func:
3016                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3017
3018        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3019
3020    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3021        return self.sql(
3022            exp.Cast(
3023                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3024                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3025            )
3026        )
3027
3028    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3029        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3030            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
3031        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3032
3033    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3034        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3035
3036        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3037            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3038
3039        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3040            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3041                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3042
3043        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3044            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3045                return self.sql(
3046                    exp.cast(
3047                        l / r,
3048                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3049                    )
3050                )
3051
3052        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3053
3054    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3055        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3056
3057    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3058        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3059
3060    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3061        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3062
3063    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3064        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3065
3066    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3067        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3068
3069    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3070        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3071
3072    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3073        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3074
3075    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3076        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3077
3078    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3079        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3080
3081    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3082        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3083
3084    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3085        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3086
3087    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3088        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3089            return self.sql(
3090                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3091            )
3092        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3093
3094    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3095        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3096
3097    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3098        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3099
3100    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3101        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3102
3103    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3104        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3105
3106    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3107        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3108
3109    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3110        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3111
3112    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3113        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3114
3115    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3116        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3117
3118    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3119        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3120
3121    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3122        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3123
3124    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3125        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3126
3127    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3128        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3129
3130    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3131        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3132
3133    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3134        this = expression.this
3135        expr = expression.expression
3136
3137        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3138            this, expr = expr, this
3139        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3140            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3141                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3142
3143            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3144
3145        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3146
3147    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3148        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3149        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3150        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3151        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3152        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3153
3154    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3155        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3156        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3157
3158    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3159        args = []
3160
3161        for key in expression.arg_types:
3162            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3163
3164            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3165                for value in arg_value:
3166                    args.append(value)
3167            elif arg_value is not None:
3168                args.append(arg_value)
3169
3170        if self.normalize_functions:
3171            name = expression.sql_name()
3172        else:
3173            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3174
3175        return self.func(name, *args)
3176
3177    def func(
3178        self,
3179        name: str,
3180        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3181        prefix: str = "(",
3182        suffix: str = ")",
3183    ) -> str:
3184        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3185
3186    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3187        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3188        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3189            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3190        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3191
3192    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3193        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
3194
3195    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
3196        return format_time(
3197            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3198            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3199            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3200        )
3201
3202    def expressions(
3203        self,
3204        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3205        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3206        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3207        flat: bool = False,
3208        indent: bool = True,
3209        skip_first: bool = False,
3210        sep: str = ", ",
3211        prefix: str = "",
3212    ) -> str:
3213        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3214
3215        if not expressions:
3216            return ""
3217
3218        if flat:
3219            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3220
3221        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3222
3223        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3224        pad = " " * self.pad
3225        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3226
3227        result_sqls = []
3228        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3229            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3230            if not sql:
3231                continue
3232
3233            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3234
3235            if self.pretty:
3236                if self.leading_comma:
3237                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3238                else:
3239                    result_sqls.append(
3240                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3241                    )
3242            else:
3243                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3244
3245        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3246        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
3247
3248    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3249        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3250        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3251        if flat:
3252            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3253        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3254
3255    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3256        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3257        if not property_name:
3258            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3259        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3260
3261    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3262        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3263
3264    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3265        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3266
3267    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3268        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3269        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3270        expressions = (
3271            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3272        )
3273        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3274
3275    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3277        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3278        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3279
3280    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3281        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3282
3283    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3284        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3285        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3286        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3287        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3288
3289        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3290        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3291            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3292            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3293                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3294        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3295            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3296                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3297            else:
3298                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3299        else:
3300            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3301        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3302
3303    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3304        table = expression.this
3305        table_alias = ""
3306
3307        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3308        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3309            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3310            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3311
3312        this = self.sql(table)
3313        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3314        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3315        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3316
3317        return self.prepend_ctes(
3318            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3319        )
3320
3321    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3322        if expression.args.get("format"):
3323            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3324
3325        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
3326
3327    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3328        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3329            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3330            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3331
3332        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3333        if not fmt:
3334            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3335            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3336
3337        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3338
3339    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3340        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3341        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3342        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3343        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3344        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3345
3346    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3347        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3348        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3349        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3350        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3351
3352    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3353        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3354
3355    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3356        return ""
3357
3358    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3359        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3360        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3361        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3362        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3363        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3364
3365    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3366        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3367        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3368
3369        if having:
3370            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3371
3372        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3373
3374    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3375        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3376        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3377        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3378        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3379        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3380        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3381        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3382        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3383        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3384        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3385        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3386        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3387        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3388
3389    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3390        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3391        if key_block_size:
3392            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3393
3394        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3395        if using:
3396            return f"USING {using}"
3397
3398        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3399        if parser:
3400            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3401
3402        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3403        if comment:
3404            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3405
3406        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3407        if visible is not None:
3408            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3409
3410        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3411        if engine_attr:
3412            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3413
3414        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3415        if secondary_engine_attr:
3416            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3417
3418        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3419        return ""
3420
3421    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3422        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3423        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3424
3425    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3426        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3427        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3428        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3429        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3430        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3431        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3432        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3433        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3434        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3435        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3436        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3437
3438    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3439        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3440            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3441
3442        case = exp.Case().when(
3443            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3444            expression.args["true"],
3445            copy=False,
3446        )
3447        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3448        if else_cond:
3449            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3450
3451        return self.sql(case)
3452
3453    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3454        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3455        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3456        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3457        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3458        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3459        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3460
3461    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3462        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3463
3464    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3465        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3466
3467    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3468        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3469        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3470        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3471        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3472        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3473        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3474
3475    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3476        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3477        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3478        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3479
3480    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3481        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3482        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3483        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3484
3485    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3486        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3487
3488    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3489        arg = expression.this
3490        if not arg.type:
3491            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3492
3493            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3494
3495        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3496            return self.sql(arg)
3497
3498        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3499        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3500
3501    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3502        this = expression.this
3503        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3504            return self.sql(this)
3505
3506        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
3507
3508    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3509        this = expression.this
3510        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3511
3512        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3513            return self.sql(
3514                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3515            )
3516
3517        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3518            return self.sql(this)
3519
3520        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
3521
3522    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3523        return self.sql(
3524            exp.func(
3525                "DATEDIFF",
3526                expression.this,
3527                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3528                "day",
3529            )
3530        )
3531
3532    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3533        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3534            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3535
3536        unit = expression.text("unit")
3537        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3538            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3539
3540        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3541
3542    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3543        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3544            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3545            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3546            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3547            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3548
3549        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3550
3551        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3552        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3553            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3554
3555        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3556
3557    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3558        this = expression.this
3559        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3560            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3561            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3562
3563        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3564            return f".{this}"
3565
3566        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3567        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3568
3569    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3570        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3571        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3572
3573    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3574        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3575            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3576
3577            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3578
3579        return expression
3580
3581    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3582        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3583        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3584
3585    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3586        expression.set(
3587            "expressions",
3588            [
3589                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.this) if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ) else e
3590                for e in expression.expressions
3591            ],
3592        )
3593
3594        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3595
3596    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3597        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3598        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3599
3600        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3601
3602    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3603        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3604        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3605
3606        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3607
3608        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3609        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3610
3611        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3612        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3613
3614        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3615        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3616
3617        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3618        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3619
3620        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3621
3622    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3623    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3624    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3625        to = expression.this
3626        value = expression.expression
3627        style = expression.args.get("style")
3628        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3629        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3630
3631        if not to or not value:
3632            return ""
3633
3634        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3635        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3636            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3637
3638        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3639        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3640
3641        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3642        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3643            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3644
3645            style_value = style.name
3646            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3647            if not converted_style:
3648                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3649
3650            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3651
3652            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3653                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3654            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3655                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3656            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3657                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3658            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3659                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3660
3661        if not transformed:
3662            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3663
3664        return self.sql(transformed)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string.
  53            Default: 2.
  54        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  55            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  56            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  57            False: Disables function name normalization.
  58        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  59            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  60        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  61            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  62            Default: 3
  63        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  64            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  65            Default: False
  66        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  67            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  68            line length.
  69            Default: 80
  70        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  71            Default: True
  72    """
  73
  74    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  75        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  76        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  79        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  80        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  82        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  84        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  85        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  88        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  89            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  90        ),
  91        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  95        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  96        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  97        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  98        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
  99        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 100        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 101        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 104        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 105            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 106        ),
 107        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 108            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 109        ),
 110        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 113        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 114        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 115        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 116        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 117        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 118        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 119        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 120        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 127        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 129        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 130        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 131        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 133        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 134        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 135        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 136        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 137        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 139        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 140        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 141        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 142        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 143        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 144        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 145        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 146        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 148    }
 149
 150    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 151    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 152    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 153
 154    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 155    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 156    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 157
 158    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 159    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 160
 161    # Always do union distinct or union all
 162    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 163
 164    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 165    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 166
 167    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 168    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 169
 170    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 171    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 172
 173    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 174    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 175
 176    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 177    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 178
 179    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 180    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 181
 182    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 183    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 184
 185    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 186    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 187
 188    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 189    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 190
 191    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 192    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 193
 194    # Whether join hints should be generated
 195    JOIN_HINTS = True
 196
 197    # Whether table hints should be generated
 198    TABLE_HINTS = True
 199
 200    # Whether query hints should be generated
 201    QUERY_HINTS = True
 202
 203    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 204    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 205
 206    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 207    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 208
 209    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 210    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 211
 212    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 213    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 214
 215    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 216    RETURNING_END = True
 217
 218    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 219    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 220
 221    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 222    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 223
 224    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 225    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 226
 227    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 228    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 229
 230    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 231    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 232
 233    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 234    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 235    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 236    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 237
 238    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 239    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 240
 241    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 242    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 243
 244    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 245    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 246
 247    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 248    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 249
 250    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 251    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 252
 253    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 254    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 255
 256    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 257    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 258
 259    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 260    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 261
 262    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 263    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 264
 265    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 266    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 267
 268    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 269    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 270
 271    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 272    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 273
 274    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 275    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 276
 277    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 278    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 279
 280    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 281    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 282
 283    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 284    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 285
 286    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 287    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 288
 289    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 290    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 291
 292    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 293    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 294
 295    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 296    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 297
 298    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 299    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 300
 301    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 302    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 303
 304    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 305    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 306
 307    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 308    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 309
 310    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 311    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 312
 313    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 314    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 315    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 316
 317    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 318    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 319
 320    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 321    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 322
 323    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 324    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 325
 326    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 327    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 328
 329    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 330    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 331
 332    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 333    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 334
 335    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 336        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 337        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 338        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 339        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 340        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 341        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 342        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 343        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 344        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 345    }
 346
 347    STAR_MAPPING = {
 348        "except": "EXCEPT",
 349        "replace": "REPLACE",
 350    }
 351
 352    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 353        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 354        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 355        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 356        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 357        "DAYS": "DAY",
 358        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 359        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 360        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 361        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 362    }
 363
 364    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 365        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 366        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 367        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 368        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 369        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 370            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 371            if e.args.get("windows")
 372            else ""
 373        ),
 374    }
 375
 376    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 377
 378    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 379
 380    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 381    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 382
 383    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 384        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 385        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 386        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 387        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 388        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 389        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 390        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 391        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 392        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 393        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 394        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 395        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 396        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 397        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 398        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 399        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 400        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 401        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 402        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 403        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 404        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 405        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 406        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 407        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 408        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 409        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 410        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 411        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 412        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 413        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 414        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 415        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 416        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 417        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 418        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 419        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 420        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 421        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 422        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 423        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 424        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 425        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 428        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 429        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 431        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 442        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 444        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 445        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 448        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 450        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 452        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 455        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 456        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 457        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 458        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459    }
 460
 461    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 462    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 463
 464    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 465    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 466        exp.Create,
 467        exp.Delete,
 468        exp.Drop,
 469        exp.From,
 470        exp.Insert,
 471        exp.Join,
 472        exp.Select,
 473        exp.Union,
 474        exp.Update,
 475        exp.Where,
 476        exp.With,
 477    )
 478
 479    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 480    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 481        exp.Binary,
 482        exp.Union,
 483    )
 484
 485    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 486    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 487        exp.Column,
 488        exp.Literal,
 489        exp.Neg,
 490        exp.Paren,
 491    )
 492
 493    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 494        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 495        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 496        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 497        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 498    }
 499
 500    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 501    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 502
 503    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 504
 505    __slots__ = (
 506        "pretty",
 507        "identify",
 508        "normalize",
 509        "pad",
 510        "_indent",
 511        "normalize_functions",
 512        "unsupported_level",
 513        "max_unsupported",
 514        "leading_comma",
 515        "max_text_width",
 516        "comments",
 517        "dialect",
 518        "unsupported_messages",
 519        "_escaped_quote_end",
 520        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 521    )
 522
 523    def __init__(
 524        self,
 525        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 526        identify: str | bool = False,
 527        normalize: bool = False,
 528        pad: int = 2,
 529        indent: int = 2,
 530        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 531        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 532        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 533        leading_comma: bool = False,
 534        max_text_width: int = 80,
 535        comments: bool = True,
 536        dialect: DialectType = None,
 537    ):
 538        import sqlglot
 539        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 540
 541        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 542        self.identify = identify
 543        self.normalize = normalize
 544        self.pad = pad
 545        self._indent = indent
 546        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 547        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 548        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 549        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 550        self.comments = comments
 551        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 552
 553        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 554        self.normalize_functions = (
 555            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 556        )
 557
 558        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 559        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 560            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 561        )
 562        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 563            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 564        )
 565
 566    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 567        """
 568        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 569
 570        Args:
 571            expression: The syntax tree.
 572            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 573                it is safer to copy.
 574
 575        Returns:
 576            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 577        """
 578        if copy:
 579            expression = expression.copy()
 580
 581        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 582
 583        self.unsupported_messages = []
 584        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 585
 586        if self.pretty:
 587            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 588
 589        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 590            return sql
 591
 592        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 593            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 594                logger.warning(msg)
 595        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 596            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 597
 598        return sql
 599
 600    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 601        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 602        if (
 603            not expression.parent
 604            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 605            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 606        ):
 607            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 608
 609            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 610
 611        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 612            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 613
 614            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 615
 616        return expression
 617
 618    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 619        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 620            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 621        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 622
 623    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 624        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 625
 626    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 627        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 628
 629    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 630        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 631        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 632        return comment
 633
 634    def maybe_comment(
 635        self,
 636        sql: str,
 637        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 638        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 639    ) -> str:
 640        comments = (
 641            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 642            if self.comments
 643            else None
 644        )
 645
 646        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 647            return sql
 648
 649        comments_sql = " ".join(
 650            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 651        )
 652
 653        if not comments_sql:
 654            return sql
 655
 656        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 657            return (
 658                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 659                if sql[0].isspace()
 660                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 661            )
 662
 663        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 664
 665    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 666        this_sql = self.indent(
 667            (
 668                self.sql(expression)
 669                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 670                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 671            ),
 672            level=1,
 673            pad=0,
 674        )
 675        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 676
 677    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 678        original = self.identify
 679        self.identify = False
 680        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 681        self.identify = original
 682        return result
 683
 684    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 685        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 686            return name.upper()
 687        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 688            return name.lower()
 689        return name
 690
 691    def indent(
 692        self,
 693        sql: str,
 694        level: int = 0,
 695        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 696        skip_first: bool = False,
 697        skip_last: bool = False,
 698    ) -> str:
 699        if not self.pretty:
 700            return sql
 701
 702        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 703        lines = sql.split("\n")
 704
 705        return "\n".join(
 706            (
 707                line
 708                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 709                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 710            )
 711            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 712        )
 713
 714    def sql(
 715        self,
 716        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 717        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 718        comment: bool = True,
 719    ) -> str:
 720        if not expression:
 721            return ""
 722
 723        if isinstance(expression, str):
 724            return expression
 725
 726        if key:
 727            value = expression.args.get(key)
 728            if value:
 729                return self.sql(value)
 730            return ""
 731
 732        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 733
 734        if callable(transform):
 735            sql = transform(self, expression)
 736        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 737            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 738
 739            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 740                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 741            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 742                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 743            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 744                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 745            else:
 746                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 747        else:
 748            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 749
 750        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 751
 752    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 753        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 754        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 755        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 756
 757    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 758        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 759        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 760        options = expression.args.get("options")
 761        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 762        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 763        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 764        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 765        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 766
 767    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 768        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 769            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 770        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 771        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 772
 773    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 774        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 775
 776        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 777            join_mark = ""
 778            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 779
 780        column = ".".join(
 781            self.sql(part)
 782            for part in (
 783                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 784                expression.args.get("db"),
 785                expression.args.get("table"),
 786                expression.args.get("this"),
 787            )
 788            if part
 789        )
 790
 791        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 792
 793    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 794        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 795        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 796        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 797        return f"{position}{this}"
 798
 799    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 800        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 801        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 802        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 803        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 804        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 805        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 806        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 807        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 808
 809        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 810            kind = ""
 811
 812        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 813
 814    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 815        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 816        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 817        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 818
 819    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 821        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 822            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 823        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 824            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 825        else:
 826            persisted = ""
 827        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 828
 829    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 830        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 831
 832    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 833        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 834            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 835        else:
 836            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 837
 838        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 839
 840    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 841        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 842    ) -> str:
 843        this = ""
 844        if expression.this is not None:
 845            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 846            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 847
 848        start = expression.args.get("start")
 849        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 850        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 851        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 852        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 853        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 854        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 855        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 856        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 857        cycle_sql = ""
 858
 859        if cycle is not None:
 860            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 861            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 862
 863        sequence_opts = ""
 864        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 865            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 866            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 867
 868        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 869        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 870
 871        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 872
 873    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 874        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 875    ) -> str:
 876        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 877        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 878        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 879
 880    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 881        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 882    ) -> str:
 883        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 884
 885    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 886        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 887
 888    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 889        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 890
 891    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 892        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 893        if desc is not None:
 894            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 895        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 896
 897    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 898        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 899        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 900        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 901        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 902        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 903        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 904        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 905
 906    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 907        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 908
 909    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 910        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 911        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 912        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 913
 914        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 915
 916        properties_sql = ""
 917        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 918            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 919        ):
 920            properties_sql = self.sql(
 921                exp.Properties(
 922                    expressions=[
 923                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 924                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 925                    ]
 926                )
 927            )
 928
 929        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 930        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 931
 932        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 933        if expression_sql:
 934            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 935
 936            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 937                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 938                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 939                        exp.Properties(
 940                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 941                        ),
 942                        wrapped=False,
 943                    )
 944                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 945                else:
 946                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 947
 948        postindex_props_sql = ""
 949        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 950            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 951                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 952                wrapped=False,
 953                prefix=" ",
 954            )
 955
 956        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 957        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 958        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 959
 960        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 961        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 962
 963        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 964        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 965            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 966                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 967                sep=" ",
 968                prefix=" ",
 969                wrapped=False,
 970            )
 971
 972        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 973
 974        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 975        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 976            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 977                exp.Properties(
 978                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 979                ),
 980                sep=" ",
 981                prefix=" ",
 982                wrapped=False,
 983            )
 984
 985        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 986        no_schema_binding = (
 987            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 988        )
 989
 990        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 991        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 992
 993        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 994        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 995
 996    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
 997        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
 998        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 999        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1000        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1001        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1002        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1003        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1004        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1005        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1006        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1007
1008        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1009        if cache is None:
1010            cache_str = ""
1011        elif cache is True:
1012            cache_str = " CACHE"
1013        else:
1014            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1015
1016        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1017        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1018
1019        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1020
1021    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1022        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1023        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1024        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1025        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1026
1027    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1028        extended = " EXTENDED" if expression.args.get("extended") else ""
1029        return f"DESCRIBE{extended} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1030
1031    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1032        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1033        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1034
1035    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1036        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1037        if with_:
1038            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1039        return sql
1040
1041    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1042        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1043        recursive = (
1044            "RECURSIVE "
1045            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1046            else ""
1047        )
1048
1049        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1050
1051    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1052        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1053
1054        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1055        if materialized is False:
1056            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1057        elif materialized:
1058            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1059
1060        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1061
1062    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1063        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1064        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1065        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1066
1067        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1068            columns = ""
1069            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1070
1071        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1072            alias = "_t"
1073
1074        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1075
1076    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1077        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1078        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1079            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1080        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1081
1082    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1083        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1084        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1085            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1086        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1087
1088    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1089        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1090        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1091            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1092        return this
1093
1094    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1095        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1096        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1097
1098        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1099            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1100            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1101
1102        if escape:
1103            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1104        else:
1105            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1106
1107        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1108        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1109
1110    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1111        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
1112        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1113
1114    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1115        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1116        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1117        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1118        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1119
1120    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1121        type_value = expression.this
1122
1123        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1124            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1125        else:
1126            type_sql = (
1127                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1128                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1129                else type_value
1130            )
1131
1132        nested = ""
1133        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1134        values = ""
1135
1136        if interior:
1137            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1138                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1139                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1140                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1141                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1142                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1143            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1144                nested = f" {interior}"
1145            else:
1146                nested = f"({interior})"
1147
1148        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1149        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1150            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1151            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1152        ):
1153            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1154
1155        return type_sql
1156
1157    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1158        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1159        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1160        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1161        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1162
1163    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1164        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1165        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1166        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1167        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1168        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1169        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1170        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1171        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1172        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1173        if self.RETURNING_END:
1174            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1175        else:
1176            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1177        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1178
1179    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1180        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1181        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1182        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1183        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1184        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1185        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1186        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1187        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1188        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1189        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1190        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1191
1192    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1193        return self.set_operations(expression)
1194
1195    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1196        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1197
1198    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1199        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1200        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1201        count = expression.args.get("count")
1202        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1203        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1204            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1205        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1206        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1207
1208    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1209        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1210            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1211            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1212            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1213
1214        agg = expression.this
1215        agg_arg = agg.this
1216        cond = expression.expression.this
1217        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1218        return self.sql(agg)
1219
1220    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1221        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1222            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1223            return ""
1224
1225        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1226
1227    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1228        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1229        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1230        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1231        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1232        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1233        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1234        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1235        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1236        if include:
1237            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1238        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1239        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1240        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1241        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1242
1243        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1244
1245    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1246        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1247        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1248        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1249        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1250        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1251        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1252        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1253
1254        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1255
1256        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1257        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1258
1259    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1260        text = expression.name
1261        lower = text.lower()
1262        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1263        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1264        if (
1265            expression.quoted
1266            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1267            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1268            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1269        ):
1270            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1271        return text
1272
1273    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1274        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1275        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1276        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1277        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1278        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1279
1280    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1281        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1282        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1283
1284    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1285        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1286
1287    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1288        root_properties = []
1289        with_properties = []
1290
1291        for p in expression.expressions:
1292            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1293            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1294                with_properties.append(p)
1295            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1296                root_properties.append(p)
1297
1298        return self.root_properties(
1299            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1300        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1301
1302    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1303        if properties.expressions:
1304            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1305        return ""
1306
1307    def properties(
1308        self,
1309        properties: exp.Properties,
1310        prefix: str = "",
1311        sep: str = ", ",
1312        suffix: str = "",
1313        wrapped: bool = True,
1314    ) -> str:
1315        if properties.expressions:
1316            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1317            if expressions:
1318                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1319                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1320        return ""
1321
1322    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1323        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1324
1325    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1326        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1327        for p in properties.expressions:
1328            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1329            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1330                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1331            else:
1332                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1333
1334        return properties_locs
1335
1336    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1337        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1338            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1339        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1340
1341    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1342        property_cls = expression.__class__
1343        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1344            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1345
1346        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1347        if not property_name:
1348            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1349
1350        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1351
1352    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1353        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1354            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1355            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1356
1357            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1358            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1359                like = f"({like})"
1360
1361            return like
1362
1363        if expression.expressions:
1364            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1365
1366        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1367        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1368
1369    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1370        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1371        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1372        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1373
1374    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1375        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1376        local = expression.args.get("local")
1377        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1378        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1379        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1380        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1381        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1382
1383    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1384        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1385        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1386        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1387
1388    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1389        if expression.args.get("default"):
1390            property = "DEFAULT"
1391        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1392            property = "ON"
1393        else:
1394            property = "OFF"
1395        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1396
1397    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1398        if expression.args.get("no"):
1399            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1400        if expression.args.get("default"):
1401            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1402
1403        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1404        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1405
1406    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1407        default = expression.args.get("default")
1408        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1409        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1410        if default or minimum or maximum:
1411            if default:
1412                prop = "DEFAULT"
1413            elif minimum:
1414                prop = "MINIMUM"
1415            else:
1416                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1417            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1418        units = expression.args.get("units")
1419        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1420        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1421
1422    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1423        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1424        always = expression.args.get("always")
1425        default = expression.args.get("default")
1426        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1427        never = expression.args.get("never")
1428
1429        if autotemp is not None:
1430            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1431        elif always:
1432            prop = "ALWAYS"
1433        elif default:
1434            prop = "DEFAULT"
1435        elif manual:
1436            prop = "MANUAL"
1437        elif never:
1438            prop = "NEVER"
1439        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1440
1441    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1442        no = expression.args.get("no")
1443        no = " NO" if no else ""
1444        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1445        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1446
1447        for_ = ""
1448        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1449            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1450        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1451            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1452        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1453            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1454        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1455
1456    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1457        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1458            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1459        if expression.this:
1460            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1461            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1462            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1463
1464        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1465        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1466        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1467
1468    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1469        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1470
1471        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1472        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1473            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1474        else:
1475            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1476
1477        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1478
1479    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1480        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1481        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1482        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1483        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1484        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1485        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1486        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1487
1488    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1489        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1490        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1491        statistics_sql = ""
1492        if statistics is not None:
1493            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1494        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1495
1496    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1497        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1498
1499        if expression.this:
1500            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1501            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1502
1503            if expression.expression:
1504                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1505                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1506
1507            sql = f"{sql})"
1508
1509        return f"{sql})"
1510
1511    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1512        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1513        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1514
1515        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1516            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1517        else:
1518            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1519
1520        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1521        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1522        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1523        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1524        if is_function:
1525            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1526        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1527
1528        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1529        partition_sql = (
1530            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1531        )
1532        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1533        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1534        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1535        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1536        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1537        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1538        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1539
1540        if self.RETURNING_END:
1541            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1542        else:
1543            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1544
1545        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1546        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1547
1548    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1549        return self.set_operations(expression)
1550
1551    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1552        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1553
1554    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1555        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1556
1557    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1558        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1559        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1560        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1561        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1562        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1563
1564    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1565        return expression.name
1566
1567    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1568        return expression.name
1569
1570    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1571        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1572
1573        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1574        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1575
1576        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1577        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1578        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1579
1580        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1581        if expressions:
1582            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1583            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1584
1585        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1586
1587    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1588        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1589
1590    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1591        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1592        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1593        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1594        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1595        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1596        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1597        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1598        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1599        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1600        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1601        null = expression.args.get("null")
1602        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1603        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1604
1605    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1606        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1607
1608    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1609        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1610        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1611        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1612        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1613
1614    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1615        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1616        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1617        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1618        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1619
1620    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1621        return ".".join(
1622            self.sql(part)
1623            for part in (
1624                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1625                expression.args.get("db"),
1626                expression.args.get("this"),
1627            )
1628            if part is not None
1629        )
1630
1631    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1632        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1633        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1634        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1635        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1636        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1637        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1638        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1639        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1640        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1641        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1642        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1643        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1644
1645        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1646        if file_format:
1647            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1648            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1649            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1650
1651        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1652        if ordinality:
1653            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1654            alias = ""
1655
1656        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1657        if when:
1658            table = f"{table} {when}"
1659
1660        return f"{only}{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1661
1662    def tablesample_sql(
1663        self,
1664        expression: exp.TableSample,
1665        sep: str = " AS ",
1666        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1667    ) -> str:
1668        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1669            table = expression.this.copy()
1670            table.set("alias", None)
1671            this = self.sql(table)
1672            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1673        else:
1674            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1675            alias = ""
1676
1677        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1678        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1679        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1680        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1681        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1682        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1683        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1684        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1685        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1686
1687        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1688        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1689            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1690
1691        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1692        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1693            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1694
1695        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1696        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1697            expr = f"({expr})"
1698
1699        return (
1700            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1701        )
1702
1703    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1704        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1705
1706        if expression.this:
1707            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1708            if not expressions:
1709                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1710
1711            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1712            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1713            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1714            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1715            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1716
1717        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1718        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1719        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1720        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1721        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1722        if include_nulls is not None:
1723            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1724        else:
1725            nulls = ""
1726        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1727
1728    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1729        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1730        kind = expression.text("kind")
1731        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1732        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1733
1734    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1735        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1736
1737    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1739        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1740        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1741        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1742        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1743        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1744        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1745        if self.RETURNING_END:
1746            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1747        else:
1748            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1749        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1750        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1751
1752    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1753        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1754        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1755            args = self.expressions(expression)
1756            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1757            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1758            values = (
1759                f"({values})"
1760                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1761                else values
1762            )
1763            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1764
1765        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1766        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1767        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1768
1769        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1770
1771        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1772            row = tup.expressions
1773
1774            if i == 0 and column_names:
1775                row = [
1776                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1777                ]
1778
1779            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1780
1781        if self.pretty:
1782            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1783            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1784            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1785            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1786            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1787
1788        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1789        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1790        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1791
1792    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1793        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1794
1795    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1796        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1797        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1798        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1799
1800    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1801        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1802
1803    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1804        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1805
1806        if expression.args.get("all"):
1807            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1808
1809        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1810        grouping_sets = (
1811            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1812        )
1813
1814        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1815        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1816            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1817        else:
1818            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1819            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1820
1821        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1822        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1823            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1824        else:
1825            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1826            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1827
1828        groupings = csv(
1829            grouping_sets,
1830            cube_sql,
1831            rollup_sql,
1832            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1833            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1834        )
1835
1836        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1837            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1838
1839        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1840
1841    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1842        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1843        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1844
1845    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1846        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1847        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1848        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1849        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1850        return start + connect
1851
1852    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1853        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1854
1855    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1856        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1857            side = None
1858        else:
1859            side = expression.side
1860
1861        op_sql = " ".join(
1862            op
1863            for op in (
1864                expression.method,
1865                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1866                side,
1867                expression.kind,
1868                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1869            )
1870            if op
1871        )
1872        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1873        using = expression.args.get("using")
1874
1875        if not on_sql and using:
1876            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1877
1878        this = expression.this
1879        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1880
1881        if on_sql:
1882            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1883            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1884            if using:
1885                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1886            else:
1887                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1888        elif not op_sql:
1889            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1890                return f" {this_sql}"
1891
1892            return f", {this_sql}"
1893
1894        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1895        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1896
1897    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1898        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1899        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1900        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1901
1902    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1903        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1904
1905        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1906        if cross_apply is True:
1907            op = "INNER JOIN "
1908        elif cross_apply is False:
1909            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1910        else:
1911            op = ""
1912
1913        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1914
1915    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1917
1918        if expression.args.get("view"):
1919            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1920            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1921            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1922            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1923            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1924            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1925
1926        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1927        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1928        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1929
1930    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1932
1933        args = [
1934            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1935            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1936            if e
1937        ]
1938
1939        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1940        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1941        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1942        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1943
1944        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1945
1946    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1948        value = expression.expression
1949        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1950        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1951        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1952        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1953
1954    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1955        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1956        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1957        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1958        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1959        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1960        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1961        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1962        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1963
1964    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1965        expressions = (
1966            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1967        )
1968        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1969        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1970
1971    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1972        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1973
1974    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1975        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1976            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1977            return ""
1978
1979        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1980        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1981        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1982        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1983
1984        if wait is not None:
1985            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1986                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1987            else:
1988                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1989
1990        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1991
1992    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1993        text = expression.this or ""
1994        if expression.is_string:
1995            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1996        return text
1997
1998    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1999        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
2000        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
2001            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
2002        elif self.pretty:
2003            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
2004        return text
2005
2006    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2007        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2008        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2009        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2010        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2011        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2012        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2013        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2014        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2015        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2016        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2017        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2018
2019    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2020        return "NULL"
2021
2022    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2023        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2024
2025    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2026        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2027        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2028        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2029        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2030        interpolated_values = [
2031            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2032            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2033        ]
2034        interpolate = (
2035            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2036        )
2037        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2038
2039    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2040        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2041        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2042        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2043        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2044        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2045        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2046        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2047
2048    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2049        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2050
2051    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2052        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2053
2054    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2055        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2056
2057    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2058        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2059        asc = not desc
2060
2061        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2062        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2063        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2064        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2065        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2066
2067        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2068
2069        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2070        nulls_sort_change = ""
2071        if nulls_first and (
2072            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2073        ):
2074            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2075        elif (
2076            nulls_last
2077            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2078            and not nulls_are_last
2079        ):
2080            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2081
2082        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2083        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2084            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2085            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2086                self.unsupported(
2087                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2088                )
2089                nulls_sort_change = ""
2090            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2091                if expression.this.is_int:
2092                    self.unsupported(
2093                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2094                    )
2095                else:
2096                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2097                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2098                nulls_sort_change = ""
2099
2100        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2101        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2102
2103        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2104
2105    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2106        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2107        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2108        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2109        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2110        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2111        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2112        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2113        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2114        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2115        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2116        definition_sqls = [
2117            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2118            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2119        ]
2120        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2121        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2122        body = "".join(
2123            (
2124                partition,
2125                order,
2126                measures,
2127                rows,
2128                after,
2129                pattern,
2130                define,
2131            )
2132        )
2133        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2134        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2135        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2136
2137    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2138        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2139
2140        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2141            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2142        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2143            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2144
2145        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2146        if options:
2147            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2148
2149        return csv(
2150            *sqls,
2151            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2152            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2153            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2154            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2155            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2156            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2157            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2158            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2159            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2160            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2161            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2162            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2163            options,
2164            sep="",
2165        )
2166
2167    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2168        return ""
2169
2170    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2171        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2172    ) -> t.List[str]:
2173        return [
2174            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2175            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2176        ]
2177
2178    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2179        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2180        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2181        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2182
2183    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2184        into = expression.args.get("into")
2185        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2186            into.pop()
2187
2188        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2189        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2190        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2191        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2192
2193        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2194        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2195            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2196            limit.pop()
2197        else:
2198            top = ""
2199
2200        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2201
2202        if kind:
2203            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2204                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2205            else:
2206                if kind == "STRUCT":
2207                    expressions = self.expressions(
2208                        sqls=[
2209                            self.sql(
2210                                exp.Struct(
2211                                    expressions=[
2212                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2213                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2214                                        else e
2215                                        for e in expression.expressions
2216                                    ]
2217                                )
2218                            )
2219                        ]
2220                    )
2221                kind = ""
2222
2223        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2224        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2225        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2226        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2227        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2228            expression,
2229            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2230            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2231            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2232        )
2233
2234        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2235
2236        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2237            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2238                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2239            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2240                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2241            else:
2242                table_kind = ""
2243            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2244
2245        return sql
2246
2247    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2248        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2249        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2250        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2251
2252    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2253        if expression.expressions:
2254            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2255        return ""
2256
2257    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2258        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2259        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2260        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2261        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2262        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2263
2264    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2266        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2267
2268    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2269        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2270        kind = expression.text("kind")
2271        if kind:
2272            kind = f"{kind}."
2273        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2274
2275    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2276        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2277
2278    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2279        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2280        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2281
2282        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2283        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2284
2285        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2286        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2287
2288    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2289        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2290        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2291
2292    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2293        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2294        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2295
2296        while stack:
2297            node = stack.pop()
2298
2299            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2300                stack.append(node.expression)
2301                stack.append(
2302                    self.maybe_comment(
2303                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2304                        expression=node.this,
2305                        comments=node.comments,
2306                    )
2307                )
2308                stack.append(node.this)
2309            else:
2310                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2311
2312        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2313        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2314        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2315
2316    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2317        return self.set_operations(expression)
2318
2319    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2320        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2321        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2322        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2323        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2324
2325    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2326        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2327
2328        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2329        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2330
2331        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2332            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2333                alias.append("columns", offset)
2334
2335        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2336            columns = alias.columns
2337            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2338        else:
2339            alias = self.sql(alias)
2340
2341        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2342        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2343            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2344        else:
2345            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2346                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2347            elif offset:
2348                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2349            else:
2350                suffix = alias
2351
2352        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2353
2354    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2355        return ""
2356
2357    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2358        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2359        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2360
2361    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2362        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2363        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2364        order = expression.args.get("order")
2365        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2366        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2367        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2368        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2369
2370        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2371
2372        first = expression.args.get("first")
2373        if first is None:
2374            first = ""
2375        else:
2376            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2377
2378        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2379            return f"{this} {alias}"
2380
2381        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2382        return f"{this} ({args})"
2383
2384    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2385        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2386        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2387
2388    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2389        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2390        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2391        end = (
2392            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2393            or "CURRENT ROW"
2394        )
2395        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2396
2397    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2398        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2399        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2400        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2401
2402    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2403        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2404        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2405        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2406        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2407
2408    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2409        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2410            expression.this,
2411            expression.expressions,
2412            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2413        )
2414        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2415        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2416
2417    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2418        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2419
2420    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2421        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2422        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2423            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2424                this = self.wrap(this)
2425            return f"ANY{this}"
2426        return f"ANY {this}"
2427
2428    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2429        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2430
2431    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2432        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2433        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2434
2435        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2436            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2437            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2438
2439        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2440
2441        if default:
2442            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2443
2444        statements.append("END")
2445
2446        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2447            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2448
2449        return " ".join(statements)
2450
2451    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2452        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2453        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2454        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2455
2456    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2457        order = expression.args.get("order")
2458        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2459        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2460
2461    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2462        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2463        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2464        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2465
2466    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2467        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2468
2469        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2470            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2471        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2472            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2473        else:
2474            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2475
2476    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2477        args = expression.expressions
2478        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2479            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2480
2481        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2482            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2483
2484        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2485            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2486
2487        return args
2488
2489    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2490        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2491
2492        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2493        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2494            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2495
2496        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2497
2498    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2499        return self.func(
2500            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2501        )
2502
2503    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2504        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2505        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2506
2507    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2508        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2509        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2510        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2511        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2512        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2513        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2514        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2515        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2516
2517    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2518        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2519        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2520        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2521        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2522
2523    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2524        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2525
2526    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2527        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2528        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2529        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2530
2531    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2532        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2533
2534    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2535        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2536        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2537
2538    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2539        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2540            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2541            if not callable(transform):
2542                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2543                return ""
2544
2545            return transform(self, expression)
2546
2547        if isinstance(expression, int):
2548            return str(expression)
2549
2550        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2551            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2552            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2553        else:
2554            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2555            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2556
2557        return escaped
2558
2559    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2560        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2561
2562    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2563        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2564        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2565
2566        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2567        if unique_keys is not None:
2568            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2569        else:
2570            unique_keys = ""
2571
2572        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2573        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2574        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2575        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2576
2577        return self.func(
2578            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2579            *expression.expressions,
2580            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2581        )
2582
2583    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2584        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2585
2586    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2587        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2588        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2589        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2590        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2591        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2592        return self.func(
2593            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2594        )
2595
2596    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2597        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2598        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2599        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2600        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2601        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2602        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2603        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2604        return self.func(
2605            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2606            this,
2607            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2608        )
2609
2610    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2611        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2612        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2613        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2614
2615        if nested_schema:
2616            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2617
2618        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2619        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2620        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2621        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2622
2623    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2624        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2625
2626    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2627        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2628        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2629        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2630        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2631        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2632        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2633        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2634        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2635        return self.func(
2636            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2637        )
2638
2639    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2641        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2642        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2643        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2644        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2645        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2646
2647    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2648        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2649        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2650        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2651        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2652        with_ = (
2653            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2654            if expressions
2655            else ""
2656        )
2657        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2658
2659    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2660        query = expression.args.get("query")
2661        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2662        field = expression.args.get("field")
2663        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2664
2665        if query:
2666            in_sql = self.wrap(self.sql(query))
2667        elif unnest:
2668            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2669        elif field:
2670            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2671        else:
2672            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2673
2674        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2675
2676    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2677        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2678
2679    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2680        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2681        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2682            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2683        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2684
2685        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2686            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2687            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2688
2689        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2690        if this:
2691            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2692            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2693
2694        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2695
2696    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2697        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2698
2699    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2701        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2702        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2703        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2704        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2705        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2706
2707    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2708        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2709
2710    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2711        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2712        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2713
2714    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2715        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2716        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2717        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2718        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2719
2720    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2721        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2722
2723    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2724        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2725        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2726        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2727
2728    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2729        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2730        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2731
2732        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2733            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2734        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2735            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2736
2737        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2738
2739    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2740        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2741
2742    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2744        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2745        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2746
2747    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2749        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2750        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2751
2752    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2753        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2754        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2755        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2756
2757    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2758        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2759
2760    def and_sql(
2761        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2762    ) -> str:
2763        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2764
2765    def or_sql(
2766        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2767    ) -> str:
2768        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2769
2770    def xor_sql(
2771        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2772    ) -> str:
2773        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2774
2775    def connector_sql(
2776        self,
2777        expression: exp.Connector,
2778        op: str,
2779        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2780    ) -> str:
2781        if stack is not None:
2782            if expression.expressions:
2783                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2784            else:
2785                stack.append(expression.right)
2786                if expression.comments:
2787                    for comment in expression.comments:
2788                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2789                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2790            return op
2791
2792        stack = [expression]
2793        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2794        ops = set()
2795
2796        while stack:
2797            node = stack.pop()
2798            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2799                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2800            else:
2801                sql = self.sql(node)
2802                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2803                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2804                else:
2805                    sqls.append(sql)
2806
2807        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2808        return sep.join(sqls)
2809
2810    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2811        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2812
2813    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2814        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2815
2816    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2817        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2818
2819    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2820        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2821
2822    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2823        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2824
2825    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2826        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2827
2828    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2829        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2830        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2831        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2832        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2833        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2834        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2835        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2836
2837    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2838        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2839        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2840
2841    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2842        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2843
2844    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2845        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2846            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2847        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2848
2849    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2850        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2851
2852    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2854        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2855        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2856        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2857        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2858
2859    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2861        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2862        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2863        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2864        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2865        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2866        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2867        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2868        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2869
2870    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2871        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2872        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2873        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2874        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2875
2876        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2877            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2878
2879        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2880
2881    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2882        return "BEGIN"
2883
2884    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2885        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2886        if chain is not None:
2887            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2888
2889        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2890
2891    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2892        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2893        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2894        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2895
2896    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2897        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2898
2899        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2900        if dtype:
2901            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2902            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2903            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2904            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2905            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2906
2907        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2908        if default:
2909            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2910
2911        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2912        if comment:
2913            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2914
2915        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2916            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2917
2918        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2919
2920    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2921        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2922            # Remove db from tables
2923            expression = expression.transform(
2924                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2925            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2926        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2927        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2928
2929    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2930        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2931        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2932        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2933        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2934
2935    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2936        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2937
2938        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2939            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2940        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2941            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2942        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2943            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2944        else:
2945            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2946
2947        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2948        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2949        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2950        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
2951        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
2952
2953    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2954        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2955            return self.expressions(
2956                expression,
2957                key="actions",
2958                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2959            )
2960        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2961
2962    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2963        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2964        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2965        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2966
2967    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2968        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
2969
2970    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2971        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2972
2973        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
2974            case = exp.case()
2975            for arg in expression.expressions:
2976                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
2977            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
2978
2979        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2980
2981        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2982        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2983        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2984
2985    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2986        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
2987
2988    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2989        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
2990
2991    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
2992        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2993        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2994        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
2995        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
2996
2997    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
2998        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
2999            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3000            mods = sorted(
3001                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3002                key=lambda x: 0
3003                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3004                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3005            )
3006
3007            if mods:
3008                mod = mods[0]
3009                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3010                this.meta["inline"] = True
3011                mod.this.replace(this)
3012                return self.sql(expression.this)
3013
3014            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3015
3016            if agg_func:
3017                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3018
3019        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3020
3021    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3022        return self.sql(
3023            exp.Cast(
3024                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3025                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3026            )
3027        )
3028
3029    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3030        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3031            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
3032        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3033
3034    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3035        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3036
3037        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3038            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3039
3040        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3041            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3042                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3043
3044        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3045            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3046                return self.sql(
3047                    exp.cast(
3048                        l / r,
3049                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3050                    )
3051                )
3052
3053        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3054
3055    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3056        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3057
3058    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3059        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3060
3061    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3062        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3063
3064    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3065        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3066
3067    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3068        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3069
3070    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3071        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3072
3073    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3074        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3075
3076    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3077        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3078
3079    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3080        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3081
3082    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3083        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3084
3085    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3086        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3087
3088    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3089        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3090            return self.sql(
3091                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3092            )
3093        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3094
3095    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3096        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3097
3098    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3099        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3100
3101    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3102        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3103
3104    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3105        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3106
3107    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3108        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3109
3110    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3111        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3112
3113    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3114        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3115
3116    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3117        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3118
3119    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3120        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3121
3122    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3123        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3124
3125    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3126        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3127
3128    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3129        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3130
3131    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3132        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3133
3134    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3135        this = expression.this
3136        expr = expression.expression
3137
3138        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3139            this, expr = expr, this
3140        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3141            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3142                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3143
3144            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3145
3146        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3147
3148    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3149        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3150        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3152        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3153        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3154
3155    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3156        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3157        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3158
3159    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3160        args = []
3161
3162        for key in expression.arg_types:
3163            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3164
3165            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3166                for value in arg_value:
3167                    args.append(value)
3168            elif arg_value is not None:
3169                args.append(arg_value)
3170
3171        if self.normalize_functions:
3172            name = expression.sql_name()
3173        else:
3174            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3175
3176        return self.func(name, *args)
3177
3178    def func(
3179        self,
3180        name: str,
3181        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3182        prefix: str = "(",
3183        suffix: str = ")",
3184    ) -> str:
3185        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3186
3187    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3188        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3189        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3190            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3191        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3192
3193    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3194        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
3195
3196    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
3197        return format_time(
3198            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3199            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3200            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3201        )
3202
3203    def expressions(
3204        self,
3205        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3206        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3207        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3208        flat: bool = False,
3209        indent: bool = True,
3210        skip_first: bool = False,
3211        sep: str = ", ",
3212        prefix: str = "",
3213    ) -> str:
3214        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3215
3216        if not expressions:
3217            return ""
3218
3219        if flat:
3220            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3221
3222        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3223
3224        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3225        pad = " " * self.pad
3226        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3227
3228        result_sqls = []
3229        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3230            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3231            if not sql:
3232                continue
3233
3234            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3235
3236            if self.pretty:
3237                if self.leading_comma:
3238                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3239                else:
3240                    result_sqls.append(
3241                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3242                    )
3243            else:
3244                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3245
3246        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3247        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
3248
3249    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3250        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3251        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3252        if flat:
3253            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3254        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3255
3256    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3257        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3258        if not property_name:
3259            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3260        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3261
3262    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3263        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3264
3265    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3266        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3267
3268    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3269        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3270        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3271        expressions = (
3272            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3273        )
3274        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3275
3276    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3277        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3278        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3279        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3280
3281    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3282        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3283
3284    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3285        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3286        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3287        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3288        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3289
3290        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3291        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3292            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3293            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3294                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3295        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3296            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3297                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3298            else:
3299                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3300        else:
3301            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3302        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3303
3304    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3305        table = expression.this
3306        table_alias = ""
3307
3308        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3309        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3310            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3311            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3312
3313        this = self.sql(table)
3314        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3315        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3316        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3317
3318        return self.prepend_ctes(
3319            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3320        )
3321
3322    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3323        if expression.args.get("format"):
3324            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3325
3326        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
3327
3328    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3329        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3330            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3331            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3332
3333        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3334        if not fmt:
3335            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3336            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3337
3338        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3339
3340    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3341        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3342        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3343        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3344        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3345        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3346
3347    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3348        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3349        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3350        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3351        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3352
3353    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3354        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3355
3356    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3357        return ""
3358
3359    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3360        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3361        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3362        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3363        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3364        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3365
3366    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3367        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3368        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3369
3370        if having:
3371            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3372
3373        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3374
3375    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3376        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3377        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3378        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3379        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3380        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3381        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3382        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3383        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3384        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3385        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3386        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3387        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3388        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3389
3390    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3391        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3392        if key_block_size:
3393            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3394
3395        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3396        if using:
3397            return f"USING {using}"
3398
3399        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3400        if parser:
3401            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3402
3403        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3404        if comment:
3405            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3406
3407        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3408        if visible is not None:
3409            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3410
3411        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3412        if engine_attr:
3413            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3414
3415        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3416        if secondary_engine_attr:
3417            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3418
3419        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3420        return ""
3421
3422    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3423        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3424        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3425
3426    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3427        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3428        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3429        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3430        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3431        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3432        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3433        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3434        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3435        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3436        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3437        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3438
3439    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3440        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3441            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3442
3443        case = exp.Case().when(
3444            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3445            expression.args["true"],
3446            copy=False,
3447        )
3448        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3449        if else_cond:
3450            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3451
3452        return self.sql(case)
3453
3454    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3455        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3456        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3457        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3458        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3459        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3460        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3461
3462    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3463        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3464
3465    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3466        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3467
3468    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3469        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3470        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3471        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3472        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3473        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3474        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3475
3476    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3478        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3479        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3480
3481    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3482        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3483        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3484        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3485
3486    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3487        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3488
3489    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3490        arg = expression.this
3491        if not arg.type:
3492            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3493
3494            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3495
3496        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3497            return self.sql(arg)
3498
3499        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3500        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3501
3502    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3503        this = expression.this
3504        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3505            return self.sql(this)
3506
3507        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
3508
3509    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3510        this = expression.this
3511        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3512
3513        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3514            return self.sql(
3515                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3516            )
3517
3518        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3519            return self.sql(this)
3520
3521        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
3522
3523    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3524        return self.sql(
3525            exp.func(
3526                "DATEDIFF",
3527                expression.this,
3528                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3529                "day",
3530            )
3531        )
3532
3533    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3534        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3535            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3536
3537        unit = expression.text("unit")
3538        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3539            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3540
3541        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3542
3543    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3544        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3545            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3546            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3547            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3548            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3549
3550        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3551
3552        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3553        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3554            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3555
3556        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3557
3558    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3559        this = expression.this
3560        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3561            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3562            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3563
3564        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3565            return f".{this}"
3566
3567        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3568        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3569
3570    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3571        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3572        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3573
3574    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3575        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3576            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3577
3578            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3579
3580        return expression
3581
3582    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3583        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3584        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3585
3586    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3587        expression.set(
3588            "expressions",
3589            [
3590                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.this) if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ) else e
3591                for e in expression.expressions
3592            ],
3593        )
3594
3595        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3596
3597    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3598        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3599        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3600
3601        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3602
3603    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3604        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3605        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3606
3607        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3608
3609        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3610        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3611
3612        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3613        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3614
3615        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3616        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3617
3618        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3619        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3620
3621        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3622
3623    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3624    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3625    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3626        to = expression.this
3627        value = expression.expression
3628        style = expression.args.get("style")
3629        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3630        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3631
3632        if not to or not value:
3633            return ""
3634
3635        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3636        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3637            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3638
3639        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3640        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3641
3642        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3643        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3644            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3645
3646            style_value = style.name
3647            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3648            if not converted_style:
3649                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3650
3651            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3652
3653            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3654                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3655            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3656                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3657            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3658                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3659            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3660                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3661
3662        if not transformed:
3663            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3664
3665        return self.sql(transformed)

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
523    def __init__(
524        self,
525        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
526        identify: str | bool = False,
527        normalize: bool = False,
528        pad: int = 2,
529        indent: int = 2,
530        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
531        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
532        max_unsupported: int = 3,
533        leading_comma: bool = False,
534        max_text_width: int = 80,
535        comments: bool = True,
536        dialect: DialectType = None,
537    ):
538        import sqlglot
539        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
540
541        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
542        self.identify = identify
543        self.normalize = normalize
544        self.pad = pad
545        self._indent = indent
546        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
547        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
548        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
549        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
550        self.comments = comments
551        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
552
553        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
554        self.normalize_functions = (
555            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
556        )
557
558        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
559        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
560            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
561        )
562        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
563            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
564        )
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
566    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
567        """
568        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
569
570        Args:
571            expression: The syntax tree.
572            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
573                it is safer to copy.
574
575        Returns:
576            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
577        """
578        if copy:
579            expression = expression.copy()
580
581        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
582
583        self.unsupported_messages = []
584        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
585
586        if self.pretty:
587            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
588
589        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
590            return sql
591
592        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
593            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
594                logger.warning(msg)
595        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
596            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
597
598        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
600    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
601        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
602        if (
603            not expression.parent
604            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
605            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
606        ):
607            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
608
609            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
610
611        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
612            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
613
614            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
615
616        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
618    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
619        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
620            raise UnsupportedError(message)
621        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
623    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
624        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
626    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
627        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
629    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
630        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
631        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
632        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
634    def maybe_comment(
635        self,
636        sql: str,
637        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
638        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
639    ) -> str:
640        comments = (
641            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
642            if self.comments
643            else None
644        )
645
646        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
647            return sql
648
649        comments_sql = " ".join(
650            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
651        )
652
653        if not comments_sql:
654            return sql
655
656        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
657            return (
658                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
659                if sql[0].isspace()
660                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
661            )
662
663        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
665    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
666        this_sql = self.indent(
667            (
668                self.sql(expression)
669                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
670                else self.sql(expression, "this")
671            ),
672            level=1,
673            pad=0,
674        )
675        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
677    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
678        original = self.identify
679        self.identify = False
680        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
681        self.identify = original
682        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
684    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
685        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
686            return name.upper()
687        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
688            return name.lower()
689        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
691    def indent(
692        self,
693        sql: str,
694        level: int = 0,
695        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
696        skip_first: bool = False,
697        skip_last: bool = False,
698    ) -> str:
699        if not self.pretty:
700            return sql
701
702        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
703        lines = sql.split("\n")
704
705        return "\n".join(
706            (
707                line
708                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
709                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
710            )
711            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
712        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
714    def sql(
715        self,
716        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
717        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
718        comment: bool = True,
719    ) -> str:
720        if not expression:
721            return ""
722
723        if isinstance(expression, str):
724            return expression
725
726        if key:
727            value = expression.args.get(key)
728            if value:
729                return self.sql(value)
730            return ""
731
732        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
733
734        if callable(transform):
735            sql = transform(self, expression)
736        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
737            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
738
739            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
740                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
741            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
742                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
743            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
744                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
745            else:
746                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
747        else:
748            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
749
750        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
752    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
753        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
754        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
755        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
757    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
758        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
759        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
760        options = expression.args.get("options")
761        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
762        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
763        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
764        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
765        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
767    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
768        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
769            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
770        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
771        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
773    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
774        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
775
776        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
777            join_mark = ""
778            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
779
780        column = ".".join(
781            self.sql(part)
782            for part in (
783                expression.args.get("catalog"),
784                expression.args.get("db"),
785                expression.args.get("table"),
786                expression.args.get("this"),
787            )
788            if part
789        )
790
791        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
793    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
794        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
795        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
796        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
797        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
799    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
800        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
801        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
802        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
803        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
804        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
805        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
806        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
807        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
808
809        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
810            kind = ""
811
812        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
814    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
815        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
816        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
817        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
819    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
821        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
822            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
823        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
824            persisted = " PERSISTED"
825        else:
826            persisted = ""
827        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
829    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
830        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
832    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
833        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
834            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
835        else:
836            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
837
838        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
840    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
841        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
842    ) -> str:
843        this = ""
844        if expression.this is not None:
845            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
846            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
847
848        start = expression.args.get("start")
849        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
850        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
851        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
852        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
853        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
854        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
855        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
856        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
857        cycle_sql = ""
858
859        if cycle is not None:
860            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
861            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
862
863        sequence_opts = ""
864        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
865            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
866            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
867
868        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
869        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
870
871        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
873    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
874        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
875    ) -> str:
876        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
877        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
878        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
880    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
881        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
882    ) -> str:
883        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
885    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
886        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
888    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
889        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
891    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
892        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
893        if desc is not None:
894            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
895        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
897    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
898        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
899        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
900        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
901        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
902        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
903        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
904        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
906    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
907        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
909    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
910        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
911        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
912        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
913
914        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
915
916        properties_sql = ""
917        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
918            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
919        ):
920            properties_sql = self.sql(
921                exp.Properties(
922                    expressions=[
923                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
924                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
925                    ]
926                )
927            )
928
929        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
930        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
931
932        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
933        if expression_sql:
934            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
935
936            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
937                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
938                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
939                        exp.Properties(
940                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
941                        ),
942                        wrapped=False,
943                    )
944                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
945                else:
946                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
947
948        postindex_props_sql = ""
949        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
950            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
951                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
952                wrapped=False,
953                prefix=" ",
954            )
955
956        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
957        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
958        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
959
960        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
961        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
962
963        postcreate_props_sql = ""
964        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
965            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
966                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
967                sep=" ",
968                prefix=" ",
969                wrapped=False,
970            )
971
972        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
973
974        postexpression_props_sql = ""
975        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
976            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
977                exp.Properties(
978                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
979                ),
980                sep=" ",
981                prefix=" ",
982                wrapped=False,
983            )
984
985        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
986        no_schema_binding = (
987            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
988        )
989
990        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
991        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
992
993        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
994        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
 996    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
 997        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
 998        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 999        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1000        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1001        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1002        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1003        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1004        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1005        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1006        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1007
1008        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1009        if cache is None:
1010            cache_str = ""
1011        elif cache is True:
1012            cache_str = " CACHE"
1013        else:
1014            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1015
1016        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1017        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1018
1019        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1021    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1022        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1023        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1024        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1025        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1027    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1028        extended = " EXTENDED" if expression.args.get("extended") else ""
1029        return f"DESCRIBE{extended} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1031    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1032        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1033        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1035    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1036        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1037        if with_:
1038            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1039        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1041    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1042        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1043        recursive = (
1044            "RECURSIVE "
1045            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1046            else ""
1047        )
1048
1049        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1051    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1052        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1053
1054        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1055        if materialized is False:
1056            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1057        elif materialized:
1058            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1059
1060        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1062    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1063        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1064        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1065        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1066
1067        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1068            columns = ""
1069            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1070
1071        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1072            alias = "_t"
1073
1074        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1076    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1077        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1078        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1079            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1080        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1082    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1083        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1084        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1085            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1086        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1088    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1089        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1090        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1091            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1092        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1094    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1095        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1096        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1097
1098        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1099            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1100            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1101
1102        if escape:
1103            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1104        else:
1105            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1106
1107        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1108        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1110    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1111        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
1112        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1114    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1115        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1116        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1117        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1118        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1120    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1121        type_value = expression.this
1122
1123        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1124            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1125        else:
1126            type_sql = (
1127                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1128                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1129                else type_value
1130            )
1131
1132        nested = ""
1133        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1134        values = ""
1135
1136        if interior:
1137            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1138                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1139                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1140                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1141                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1142                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1143            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1144                nested = f" {interior}"
1145            else:
1146                nested = f"({interior})"
1147
1148        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1149        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1150            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1151            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1152        ):
1153            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1154
1155        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1157    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1158        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1159        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1160        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1161        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1163    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1164        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1165        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1166        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1167        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1168        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1169        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1170        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1171        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1172        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1173        if self.RETURNING_END:
1174            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1175        else:
1176            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1177        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1179    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1180        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1181        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1182        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1183        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1184        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1185        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1186        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1187        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1188        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1189        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1190        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1192    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1193        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1195    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1196        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1198    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1199        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1200        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1201        count = expression.args.get("count")
1202        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1203        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1204            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1205        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1206        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1208    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1209        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1210            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1211            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1212            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1213
1214        agg = expression.this
1215        agg_arg = agg.this
1216        cond = expression.expression.this
1217        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1218        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1220    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1221        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1222            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1223            return ""
1224
1225        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1227    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1228        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1229        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1230        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1231        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1232        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1233        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1234        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1235        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1236        if include:
1237            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1238        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1239        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1240        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1241        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1242
1243        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1245    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1246        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1247        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1248        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1249        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1250        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1251        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1252        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1253
1254        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1255
1256        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1257        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1259    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1260        text = expression.name
1261        lower = text.lower()
1262        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1263        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1264        if (
1265            expression.quoted
1266            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1267            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1268            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1269        ):
1270            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1271        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1273    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1274        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1275        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1276        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1277        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1278        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1280    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1281        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1282        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1284    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1285        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1287    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1288        root_properties = []
1289        with_properties = []
1290
1291        for p in expression.expressions:
1292            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1293            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1294                with_properties.append(p)
1295            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1296                root_properties.append(p)
1297
1298        return self.root_properties(
1299            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1300        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1302    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1303        if properties.expressions:
1304            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1305        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1307    def properties(
1308        self,
1309        properties: exp.Properties,
1310        prefix: str = "",
1311        sep: str = ", ",
1312        suffix: str = "",
1313        wrapped: bool = True,
1314    ) -> str:
1315        if properties.expressions:
1316            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1317            if expressions:
1318                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1319                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1320        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1322    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1323        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1325    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1326        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1327        for p in properties.expressions:
1328            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1329            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1330                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1331            else:
1332                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1333
1334        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1336    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1337        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1338            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1339        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1341    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1342        property_cls = expression.__class__
1343        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1344            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1345
1346        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1347        if not property_name:
1348            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1349
1350        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1352    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1353        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1354            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1355            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1356
1357            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1358            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1359                like = f"({like})"
1360
1361            return like
1362
1363        if expression.expressions:
1364            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1365
1366        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1367        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1369    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1370        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1371        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1372        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1374    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1375        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1376        local = expression.args.get("local")
1377        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1378        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1379        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1380        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1381        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1383    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1384        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1385        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1386        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1388    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1389        if expression.args.get("default"):
1390            property = "DEFAULT"
1391        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1392            property = "ON"
1393        else:
1394            property = "OFF"
1395        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1397    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1398        if expression.args.get("no"):
1399            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1400        if expression.args.get("default"):
1401            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1402
1403        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1404        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1406    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1407        default = expression.args.get("default")
1408        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1409        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1410        if default or minimum or maximum:
1411            if default:
1412                prop = "DEFAULT"
1413            elif minimum:
1414                prop = "MINIMUM"
1415            else:
1416                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1417            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1418        units = expression.args.get("units")
1419        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1420        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1422    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1423        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1424        always = expression.args.get("always")
1425        default = expression.args.get("default")
1426        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1427        never = expression.args.get("never")
1428
1429        if autotemp is not None:
1430            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1431        elif always:
1432            prop = "ALWAYS"
1433        elif default:
1434            prop = "DEFAULT"
1435        elif manual:
1436            prop = "MANUAL"
1437        elif never:
1438            prop = "NEVER"
1439        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1441    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1442        no = expression.args.get("no")
1443        no = " NO" if no else ""
1444        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1445        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1446
1447        for_ = ""
1448        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1449            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1450        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1451            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1452        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1453            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1454        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1456    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1457        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1458            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1459        if expression.this:
1460            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1461            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1462            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1463
1464        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1465        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1466        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1468    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1469        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1470
1471        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1472        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1473            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1474        else:
1475            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1476
1477        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1479    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1480        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1481        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1482        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1483        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1484        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1485        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1486        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1488    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1489        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1490        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1491        statistics_sql = ""
1492        if statistics is not None:
1493            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1494        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1496    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1497        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1498
1499        if expression.this:
1500            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1501            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1502
1503            if expression.expression:
1504                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1505                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1506
1507            sql = f"{sql})"
1508
1509        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1511    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1512        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1513        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1514
1515        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1516            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1517        else:
1518            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1519
1520        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1521        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1522        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1523        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1524        if is_function:
1525            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1526        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1527
1528        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1529        partition_sql = (
1530            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1531        )
1532        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1533        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1534        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1535        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1536        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1537        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1538        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1539
1540        if self.RETURNING_END:
1541            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1542        else:
1543            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1544
1545        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1546        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1548    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1549        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1551    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1552        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1554    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1555        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1557    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1558        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1559        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1560        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1561        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1562        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1564    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1565        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1567    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1568        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1570    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1571        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1572
1573        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1574        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1575
1576        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1577        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1578        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1579
1580        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1581        if expressions:
1582            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1583            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1584
1585        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1587    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1588        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1590    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1591        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1592        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1593        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1594        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1595        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1596        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1597        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1598        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1599        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1600        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1601        null = expression.args.get("null")
1602        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1603        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1605    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1606        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1608    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1609        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1610        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1611        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1612        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1614    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1615        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1616        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1617        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1618        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1620    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1621        return ".".join(
1622            self.sql(part)
1623            for part in (
1624                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1625                expression.args.get("db"),
1626                expression.args.get("this"),
1627            )
1628            if part is not None
1629        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1631    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1632        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1633        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1634        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1635        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1636        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1637        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1638        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1639        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1640        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1641        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1642        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1643        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1644
1645        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1646        if file_format:
1647            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1648            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1649            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1650
1651        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1652        if ordinality:
1653            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1654            alias = ""
1655
1656        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1657        if when:
1658            table = f"{table} {when}"
1659
1660        return f"{only}{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1662    def tablesample_sql(
1663        self,
1664        expression: exp.TableSample,
1665        sep: str = " AS ",
1666        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1667    ) -> str:
1668        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1669            table = expression.this.copy()
1670            table.set("alias", None)
1671            this = self.sql(table)
1672            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1673        else:
1674            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1675            alias = ""
1676
1677        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1678        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1679        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1680        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1681        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1682        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1683        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1684        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1685        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1686
1687        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1688        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1689            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1690
1691        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1692        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1693            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1694
1695        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1696        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1697            expr = f"({expr})"
1698
1699        return (
1700            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1701        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1703    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1704        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1705
1706        if expression.this:
1707            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1708            if not expressions:
1709                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1710
1711            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1712            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1713            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1714            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1715            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1716
1717        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1718        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1719        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1720        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1721        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1722        if include_nulls is not None:
1723            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1724        else:
1725            nulls = ""
1726        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1728    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1729        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1730        kind = expression.text("kind")
1731        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1732        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1734    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1735        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1737    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1739        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1740        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1741        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1742        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1743        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1744        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1745        if self.RETURNING_END:
1746            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1747        else:
1748            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1749        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1750        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1752    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1753        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1754        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1755            args = self.expressions(expression)
1756            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1757            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1758            values = (
1759                f"({values})"
1760                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1761                else values
1762            )
1763            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1764
1765        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1766        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1767        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1768
1769        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1770
1771        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1772            row = tup.expressions
1773
1774            if i == 0 and column_names:
1775                row = [
1776                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1777                ]
1778
1779            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1780
1781        if self.pretty:
1782            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1783            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1784            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1785            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1786            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1787
1788        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1789        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1790        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1792    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1793        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1795    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1796        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1797        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1798        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1800    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1801        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1803    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1804        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1805
1806        if expression.args.get("all"):
1807            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1808
1809        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1810        grouping_sets = (
1811            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1812        )
1813
1814        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1815        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1816            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1817        else:
1818            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1819            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1820
1821        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1822        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1823            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1824        else:
1825            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1826            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1827
1828        groupings = csv(
1829            grouping_sets,
1830            cube_sql,
1831            rollup_sql,
1832            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1833            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1834        )
1835
1836        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1837            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1838
1839        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1841    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1842        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1843        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1845    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1846        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1847        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1848        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1849        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1850        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1852    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1853        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1855    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1856        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1857            side = None
1858        else:
1859            side = expression.side
1860
1861        op_sql = " ".join(
1862            op
1863            for op in (
1864                expression.method,
1865                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1866                side,
1867                expression.kind,
1868                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1869            )
1870            if op
1871        )
1872        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1873        using = expression.args.get("using")
1874
1875        if not on_sql and using:
1876            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1877
1878        this = expression.this
1879        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1880
1881        if on_sql:
1882            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1883            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1884            if using:
1885                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1886            else:
1887                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1888        elif not op_sql:
1889            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1890                return f" {this_sql}"
1891
1892            return f", {this_sql}"
1893
1894        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1895        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1897    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1898        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1899        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1900        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1902    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1903        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1904
1905        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1906        if cross_apply is True:
1907            op = "INNER JOIN "
1908        elif cross_apply is False:
1909            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1910        else:
1911            op = ""
1912
1913        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1915    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1917
1918        if expression.args.get("view"):
1919            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1920            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1921            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1922            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1923            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1924            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1925
1926        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1927        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1928        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1930    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1932
1933        args = [
1934            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1935            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1936            if e
1937        ]
1938
1939        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1940        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1941        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1942        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1943
1944        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1946    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1948        value = expression.expression
1949        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1950        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1951        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1952        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1954    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1955        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1956        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1957        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1958        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1959        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1960        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1961        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1962        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1964    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1965        expressions = (
1966            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1967        )
1968        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1969        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1971    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1972        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1974    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1975        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1976            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1977            return ""
1978
1979        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1980        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1981        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1982        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1983
1984        if wait is not None:
1985            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1986                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1987            else:
1988                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1989
1990        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1992    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1993        text = expression.this or ""
1994        if expression.is_string:
1995            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1996        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1998    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1999        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
2000        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
2001            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
2002        elif self.pretty:
2003            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
2004        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2006    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2007        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2008        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2009        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2010        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2011        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2012        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2013        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2014        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2015        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2016        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2017        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2019    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2020        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2022    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2023        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2025    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2026        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2027        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2028        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2029        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2030        interpolated_values = [
2031            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2032            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2033        ]
2034        interpolate = (
2035            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2036        )
2037        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2039    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2040        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2041        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2042        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2043        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2044        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2045        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2046        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2048    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2049        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2051    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2052        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2054    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2055        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2057    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2058        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2059        asc = not desc
2060
2061        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2062        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2063        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2064        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2065        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2066
2067        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2068
2069        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2070        nulls_sort_change = ""
2071        if nulls_first and (
2072            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2073        ):
2074            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2075        elif (
2076            nulls_last
2077            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2078            and not nulls_are_last
2079        ):
2080            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2081
2082        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2083        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2084            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2085            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2086                self.unsupported(
2087                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2088                )
2089                nulls_sort_change = ""
2090            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2091                if expression.this.is_int:
2092                    self.unsupported(
2093                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2094                    )
2095                else:
2096                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2097                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2098                nulls_sort_change = ""
2099
2100        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2101        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2102
2103        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2105    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2106        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2107        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2108        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2109        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2110        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2111        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2112        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2113        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2114        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2115        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2116        definition_sqls = [
2117            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2118            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2119        ]
2120        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2121        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2122        body = "".join(
2123            (
2124                partition,
2125                order,
2126                measures,
2127                rows,
2128                after,
2129                pattern,
2130                define,
2131            )
2132        )
2133        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2134        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2135        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2137    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2138        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2139
2140        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2141            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2142        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2143            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2144
2145        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2146        if options:
2147            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2148
2149        return csv(
2150            *sqls,
2151            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2152            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2153            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2154            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2155            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2156            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2157            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2158            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2159            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2160            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2161            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2162            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2163            options,
2164            sep="",
2165        )
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2167    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2168        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2170    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2171        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2172    ) -> t.List[str]:
2173        return [
2174            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2175            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2176        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2178    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2179        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2180        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2181        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2183    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2184        into = expression.args.get("into")
2185        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2186            into.pop()
2187
2188        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2189        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2190        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2191        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2192
2193        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2194        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2195            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2196            limit.pop()
2197        else:
2198            top = ""
2199
2200        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2201
2202        if kind:
2203            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2204                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2205            else:
2206                if kind == "STRUCT":
2207                    expressions = self.expressions(
2208                        sqls=[
2209                            self.sql(
2210                                exp.Struct(
2211                                    expressions=[
2212                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2213                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2214                                        else e
2215                                        for e in expression.expressions
2216                                    ]
2217                                )
2218                            )
2219                        ]
2220                    )
2221                kind = ""
2222
2223        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2224        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2225        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2226        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2227        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2228            expression,
2229            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2230            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2231            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2232        )
2233
2234        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2235
2236        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2237            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2238                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2239            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2240                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2241            else:
2242                table_kind = ""
2243            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2244
2245        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2247    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2248        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2249        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2250        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2252    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2253        if expression.expressions:
2254            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2255        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2257    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2258        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2259        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2260        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2261        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2262        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2264    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2266        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2268    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2269        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2270        kind = expression.text("kind")
2271        if kind:
2272            kind = f"{kind}."
2273        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2275    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2276        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2278    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2279        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2280        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2281
2282        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2283        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2284
2285        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2286        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2288    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2289        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2290        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2292    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2293        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2294        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2295
2296        while stack:
2297            node = stack.pop()
2298
2299            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2300                stack.append(node.expression)
2301                stack.append(
2302                    self.maybe_comment(
2303                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2304                        expression=node.this,
2305                        comments=node.comments,
2306                    )
2307                )
2308                stack.append(node.this)
2309            else:
2310                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2311
2312        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2313        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2314        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2316    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2317        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2319    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2320        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2321        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2322        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2323        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2325    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2326        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2327
2328        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2329        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2330
2331        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2332            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2333                alias.append("columns", offset)
2334
2335        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2336            columns = alias.columns
2337            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2338        else:
2339            alias = self.sql(alias)
2340
2341        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2342        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2343            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2344        else:
2345            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2346                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2347            elif offset:
2348                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2349            else:
2350                suffix = alias
2351
2352        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2354    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2355        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2357    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2358        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2359        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2361    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2362        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2363        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2364        order = expression.args.get("order")
2365        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2366        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2367        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2368        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2369
2370        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2371
2372        first = expression.args.get("first")
2373        if first is None:
2374            first = ""
2375        else:
2376            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2377
2378        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2379            return f"{this} {alias}"
2380
2381        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2382        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2384    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2385        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2386        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2388    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2389        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2390        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2391        end = (
2392            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2393            or "CURRENT ROW"
2394        )
2395        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2397    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2398        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2399        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2400        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2402    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2403        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2404        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2405        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2406        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2408    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2409        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2410            expression.this,
2411            expression.expressions,
2412            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2413        )
2414        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2415        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2417    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2418        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2420    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2421        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2422        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2423            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2424                this = self.wrap(this)
2425            return f"ANY{this}"
2426        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2428    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2429        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2431    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2432        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2433        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2434
2435        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2436            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2437            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2438
2439        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2440
2441        if default:
2442            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2443
2444        statements.append("END")
2445
2446        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2447            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2448
2449        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2451    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2452        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2453        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2454        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2456    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2457        order = expression.args.get("order")
2458        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2459        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2461    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2462        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2463        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2464        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2466    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2467        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2468
2469        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2470            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2471        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2472            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2473        else:
2474            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2476    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2477        args = expression.expressions
2478        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2479            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2480
2481        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2482            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2483
2484        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2485            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2486
2487        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2489    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2490        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2491
2492        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2493        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2494            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2495
2496        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2498    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2499        return self.func(
2500            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2501        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2503    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2504        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2505        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2507    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2508        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2509        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2510        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2511        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2512        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2513        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2514        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2515        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2517    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2518        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2519        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2520        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2521        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2523    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2524        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2526    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2527        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2528        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2529        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2531    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2532        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2534    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2535        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2536        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2538    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2539        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2540            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2541            if not callable(transform):
2542                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2543                return ""
2544
2545            return transform(self, expression)
2546
2547        if isinstance(expression, int):
2548            return str(expression)
2549
2550        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2551            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2552            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2553        else:
2554            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2555            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2556
2557        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2559    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2560        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2562    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2563        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2564        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2565
2566        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2567        if unique_keys is not None:
2568            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2569        else:
2570            unique_keys = ""
2571
2572        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2573        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2574        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2575        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2576
2577        return self.func(
2578            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2579            *expression.expressions,
2580            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2581        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2583    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2584        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2586    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2587        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2588        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2589        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2590        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2591        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2592        return self.func(
2593            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2594        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2596    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2597        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2598        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2599        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2600        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2601        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2602        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2603        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2604        return self.func(
2605            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2606            this,
2607            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2608        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2610    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2611        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2612        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2613        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2614
2615        if nested_schema:
2616            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2617
2618        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2619        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2620        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2621        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2623    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2624        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2626    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2627        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2628        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2629        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2630        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2631        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2632        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2633        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2634        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2635        return self.func(
2636            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2637        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2639    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2641        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2642        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2643        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2644        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2645        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2647    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2648        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2649        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2650        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2651        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2652        with_ = (
2653            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2654            if expressions
2655            else ""
2656        )
2657        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2659    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2660        query = expression.args.get("query")
2661        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2662        field = expression.args.get("field")
2663        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2664
2665        if query:
2666            in_sql = self.wrap(self.sql(query))
2667        elif unnest:
2668            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2669        elif field:
2670            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2671        else:
2672            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2673
2674        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2676    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2677        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2679    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2680        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2681        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2682            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2683        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2684
2685        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2686            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2687            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2688
2689        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2690        if this:
2691            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2692            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2693
2694        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2696    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2697        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2699    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2701        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2702        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2703        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2704        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2705        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2707    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2708        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2710    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2711        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2712        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2714    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2715        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2716        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2717        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2718        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2720    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2721        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2723    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2724        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2725        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2726        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2728    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2729        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2730        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2731
2732        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2733            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2734        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2735            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2736
2737        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2739    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2740        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2742    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2744        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2745        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2747    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2749        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2750        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2752    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2753        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2754        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2755        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2757    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2758        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2760    def and_sql(
2761        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2762    ) -> str:
2763        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2765    def or_sql(
2766        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2767    ) -> str:
2768        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2770    def xor_sql(
2771        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2772    ) -> str:
2773        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2775    def connector_sql(
2776        self,
2777        expression: exp.Connector,
2778        op: str,
2779        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2780    ) -> str:
2781        if stack is not None:
2782            if expression.expressions:
2783                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2784            else:
2785                stack.append(expression.right)
2786                if expression.comments:
2787                    for comment in expression.comments:
2788                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2789                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2790            return op
2791
2792        stack = [expression]
2793        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2794        ops = set()
2795
2796        while stack:
2797            node = stack.pop()
2798            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2799                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2800            else:
2801                sql = self.sql(node)
2802                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2803                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2804                else:
2805                    sqls.append(sql)
2806
2807        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2808        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2810    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2811        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2813    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2814        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2816    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2817        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2819    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2820        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2822    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2823        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2825    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2826        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2828    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2829        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2830        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2831        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2832        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2833        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2834        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2835        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2837    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2838        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2839        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2841    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2842        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2844    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2845        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2846            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2847        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2849    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2850        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2852    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2854        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2855        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2856        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2857        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2859    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2861        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2862        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2863        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2864        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2865        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2866        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2867        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2868        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2870    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2871        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2872        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2873        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2874        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2875
2876        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2877            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2878
2879        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2881    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2882        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2884    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2885        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2886        if chain is not None:
2887            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2888
2889        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2891    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2892        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2893        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2894        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2896    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2897        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2898
2899        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2900        if dtype:
2901            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2902            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2903            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2904            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2905            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2906
2907        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2908        if default:
2909            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2910
2911        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2912        if comment:
2913            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2914
2915        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2916            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2917
2918        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2920    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2921        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2922            # Remove db from tables
2923            expression = expression.transform(
2924                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2925            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2926        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2927        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
2929    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2930        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2931        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2932        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2933        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2935    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2936        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2937
2938        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2939            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2940        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2941            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2942        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2943            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2944        else:
2945            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2946
2947        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2948        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2949        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2950        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
2951        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2953    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2954        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2955            return self.expressions(
2956                expression,
2957                key="actions",
2958                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2959            )
2960        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2962    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2963        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2964        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2965        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2967    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2968        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2970    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2971        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2972
2973        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
2974            case = exp.case()
2975            for arg in expression.expressions:
2976                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
2977            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
2978
2979        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2980
2981        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2982        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2983        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2985    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2986        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2988    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2989        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
2991    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
2992        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2993        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2994        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
2995        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3021    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3022        return self.sql(
3023            exp.Cast(
3024                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3025                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3026            )
3027        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3029    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3030        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3031            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
3032        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3034    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3035        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3036
3037        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3038            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3039
3040        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3041            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3042                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3043
3044        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3045            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3046                return self.sql(
3047                    exp.cast(
3048                        l / r,
3049                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3050                    )
3051                )
3052
3053        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3055    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3056        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3058    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3059        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3061    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3062        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3064    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3065        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3067    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3068        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3070    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3071        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3073    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3074        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3076    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3077        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3079    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3080        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3082    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3083        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3085    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3086        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3088    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3089        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3090            return self.sql(
3091                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3092            )
3093        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3095    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3096        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3098    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3099        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3101    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3102        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3104    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3105        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3107    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3108        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3110    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3111        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3113    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3114        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3116    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3117        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3119    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3120        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3122    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3123        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3125    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3126        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3128    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3129        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3131    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3132        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3134    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3135        this = expression.this
3136        expr = expression.expression
3137
3138        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3139            this, expr = expr, this
3140        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3141            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3142                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3143
3144            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3145
3146        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3148    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3149        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3150        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3152        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3153        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3155    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3156        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3157        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3159    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3160        args = []
3161
3162        for key in expression.arg_types:
3163            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3164
3165            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3166                for value in arg_value:
3167                    args.append(value)
3168            elif arg_value is not None:
3169                args.append(arg_value)
3170
3171        if self.normalize_functions:
3172            name = expression.sql_name()
3173        else:
3174            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3175
3176        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3178    def func(
3179        self,
3180        name: str,
3181        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3182        prefix: str = "(",
3183        suffix: str = ")",
3184    ) -> str:
3185        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3187    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3188        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3189        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3190            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3191        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
3193    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3194        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
3196    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
3197        return format_time(
3198            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3199            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3200            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3201        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
3203    def expressions(
3204        self,
3205        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3206        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3207        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3208        flat: bool = False,
3209        indent: bool = True,
3210        skip_first: bool = False,
3211        sep: str = ", ",
3212        prefix: str = "",
3213    ) -> str:
3214        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3215
3216        if not expressions:
3217            return ""
3218
3219        if flat:
3220            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3221
3222        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3223
3224        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3225        pad = " " * self.pad
3226        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3227
3228        result_sqls = []
3229        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3230            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3231            if not sql:
3232                continue
3233
3234            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3235
3236            if self.pretty:
3237                if self.leading_comma:
3238                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3239                else:
3240                    result_sqls.append(
3241                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3242                    )
3243            else:
3244                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3245
3246        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3247        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3249    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3250        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3251        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3252        if flat:
3253            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3254        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3256    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3257        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3258        if not property_name:
3259            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3260        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3262    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3263        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3265    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3266        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3268    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3269        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3270        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3271        expressions = (
3272            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3273        )
3274        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3276    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3277        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3278        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3279        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3281    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3282        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3284    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3285        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3286        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3287        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3288        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3289
3290        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3291        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3292            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3293            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3294                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3295        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3296            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3297                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3298            else:
3299                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3300        else:
3301            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3302        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3304    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3305        table = expression.this
3306        table_alias = ""
3307
3308        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3309        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3310            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3311            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3312
3313        this = self.sql(table)
3314        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3315        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3316        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3317
3318        return self.prepend_ctes(
3319            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3320        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3322    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3323        if expression.args.get("format"):
3324            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3325
3326        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3328    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3329        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3330            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3331            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3332
3333        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3334        if not fmt:
3335            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3336            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3337
3338        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3340    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3341        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3342        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3343        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3344        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3345        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3347    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3348        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3349        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3350        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3351        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3353    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3354        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3356    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3357        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3359    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3360        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3361        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3362        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3363        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3364        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3366    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3367        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3368        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3369
3370        if having:
3371            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3372
3373        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3375    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3376        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3377        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3378        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3379        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3380        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3381        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3382        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3383        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3384        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3385        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3386        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3387        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3388        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3390    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3391        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3392        if key_block_size:
3393            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3394
3395        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3396        if using:
3397            return f"USING {using}"
3398
3399        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3400        if parser:
3401            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3402
3403        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3404        if comment:
3405            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3406
3407        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3408        if visible is not None:
3409            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3410
3411        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3412        if engine_attr:
3413            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3414
3415        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3416        if secondary_engine_attr:
3417            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3418
3419        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3420        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3422    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3423        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3424        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3426    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3427        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3428        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3429        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3430        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3431        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3432        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3433        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3434        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3435        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3436        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3437        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3439    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3440        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3441            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3442
3443        case = exp.Case().when(
3444            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3445            expression.args["true"],
3446            copy=False,
3447        )
3448        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3449        if else_cond:
3450            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3451
3452        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3454    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3455        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3456        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3457        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3458        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3459        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3460        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3462    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3463        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3465    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3466        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3468    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3469        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3470        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3471        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3472        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3473        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3474        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3476    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3478        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3479        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3481    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3482        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3483        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3484        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3486    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3487        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3489    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3490        arg = expression.this
3491        if not arg.type:
3492            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3493
3494            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3495
3496        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3497            return self.sql(arg)
3498
3499        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3500        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3502    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3503        this = expression.this
3504        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3505            return self.sql(this)
3506
3507        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3509    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3510        this = expression.this
3511        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3512
3513        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3514            return self.sql(
3515                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3516            )
3517
3518        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3519            return self.sql(this)
3520
3521        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3523    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3524        return self.sql(
3525            exp.func(
3526                "DATEDIFF",
3527                expression.this,
3528                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3529                "day",
3530            )
3531        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3533    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3534        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3535            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3536
3537        unit = expression.text("unit")
3538        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3539            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3540
3541        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3543    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3544        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3545            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3546            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3547            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3548            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3549
3550        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3551
3552        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3553        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3554            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3555
3556        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3582    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3583        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3584        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3586    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3587        expression.set(
3588            "expressions",
3589            [
3590                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.this) if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ) else e
3591                for e in expression.expressions
3592            ],
3593        )
3594
3595        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3597    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3598        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3599        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3600
3601        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3603    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3604        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3605        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3606
3607        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3608
3609        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3610        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3611
3612        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3613        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3614
3615        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3616        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3617
3618        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3619        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3620
3621        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3625    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3626        to = expression.this
3627        value = expression.expression
3628        style = expression.args.get("style")
3629        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3630        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3631
3632        if not to or not value:
3633            return ""
3634
3635        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3636        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3637            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3638
3639        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3640        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3641
3642        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3643        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3644            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3645
3646            style_value = style.name
3647            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3648            if not converted_style:
3649                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3650
3651            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3652
3653            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3654                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3655            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3656                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3657            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3658                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3659            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3660                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3661
3662        if not transformed:
3663            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3664
3665        return self.sql(transformed)